LECTURE 3-2: DECISION

THEORY
 CONTENT
▪ Signal space representation
▪ AWGN channel
▪ Receiver roles
▪ Orthonormal basis formulation
▪ Gram-Schmidt algorithm
▪ Signal space based on orthonormal basis (vector presentation)
▪ ML and MAP criterions
▪ Received signals and noise at the receiver side
▪ Decision based on vector formulation
▪ Detection with MAP criterion
▪ Detection with ML criterion
▪ Voronoi region
 CHANNEL TRANSMISSION

white Gaussian noise n(t)

• ergodic random process
• each random variable is a Gaussian random variable
with zero average

• constant spectral density Gn(f)=N0/2

Gn ( f )

N0 / 2

3
 AWGN (1)
Gn ( f )

N0 / 2

N0
Gn ( f ) = N 0 / 2 Rn ( ) =  ( )
2

4
 AWGN (2)
Gn ( f )

N0 / 2

N0 N0
Rn ( ) =  ( ) E  n(t1 )n(t1 +  )  =  ( )
2 2
n(t) is an ergodic process
(temporal properties = statistical properties)
5
 AWGN (3)

Fixed two different instant times t1 and t2

the random variables
t1 ⎯⎯
→ n(t1 )
t2 ⎯⎯
→ n(t2 )
are Gaussian random variables with
N0
E[n(t1 )n(t2 )] =  (t1 − t2 )
2
Statistically independent

6
 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (1)

u T ⎯⎯
→ s(t ) ⎯⎯
→ r (t ) = s (t ) + n(t )

PROBLEM: given r(t) → recover s(t)

Divide r(t) in segments of duration T

r (t ) = (r[0](t ) | r[1](t ) | ... | r[ n](t ) | ...

T T T
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 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (2)

Is it possible to independently analyze any single interval?

r (t ) = (r[0](t ) | r[1](t ) | ... | r[ n](t ) | ... we have

T T T r (t ) = s(t ) + n(t )

s(t ) = ( s[0](t ) | s[1](t ) | ... | s[n](t ) | ...

n(t ) = (n[0](t ) | n[1](t ) | ... | n[ n](t ) | ...

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 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (3)

Consider the n-th interval nT  t  (n + 1)T

r[n](t ) = s[n](t ) + n[n](t )

Each r[n](t) certainly depends on

• the corresponding transmitting signal s[n](t)

• the noise random variables extracted at nT  t  (n + 1)T

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 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (4)

s(t ) = ( s[0](t ) | s[1](t ) | ... | s[m](t ) | ...... | s[n](t ) | ...

T T T T
Each transmitted signal s[n](t)
• has finite durationT

• is statistically independent with respect to any other

transmitted signal s[m](t), mn

→ r[n](t) is independent from s[m](t), mn

10
 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (5)

n(t ) = (n[0](t ) | n[1](t ) | ... | n[ m](t ) | ...... | n[ n](t ) | ...

T T T T

Each random variable n(ti) is statistically independent

→r[n](t) is independent from n[m](t), mn

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 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (5)

Each r[n](t) only depends on

• the corresponding transmitting signal s[n](t)

• the noise random variables extracted at

Each interval can be independently analyzed

NO INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE (ISI)

r (t ) = (r[0](t ) | r[1](t ) | ... | r[ n](t ) | ...

T T T
12
 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (6)

Each interval can be independently analyzed

Let us focus on the first one, for 0t T

r (t ) = (r[0](t ) | r[1](t ) | ... | r[ n](t ) | ...

T

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 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (7)

Let us consider the first interval 0t T

s[0](t ) ⎯⎯
→ r[0](t ) = s[0](t ) + n[0](t )
For simplicity, omit the index [0]

s (t ) ⎯⎯
→ r (t ) = s (t ) + n(t )

PROBLEM: given r(t) → recover s(t)

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 PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER SIDE (8)

The transmitted signal s(t) certainly belongs to the signal space S

Does the received signal r(t) belong to S ?

r (t ) = s(t ) + n(t )
This depends on n(t).

In general, n(t) will be a generic signal not belonging to S: n(t )  S

In general
r (t )  S
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 RANDOM VARIABLES (1)

We know that n(t )  S

Let us try to project the noise on the basis signals.

B = ( b j (t ) )
d

j =1

The j-th projection is:

T
n j =  n(t )b j (t )dt
0

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 RANDOM VARIABLES (2)
T
n j =  n(t )b j (t )dt
0

It is easy to show that these components nj are

Gaussian random variables

• average E[nj]=0
• variance σ2=N0/2
• Statistically independent

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 RANDOM VARIABLES (3)
T
n j =  n(t )b j (t )dt
0

• Gaussian random variables:

Obtained from a linear transformation of a Gaussian process

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 RANDOM VARIABLES (4)
T
n j =  n(t )b j (t )dt
0

• Average value E[nj]=0

T  T
E  n j  = E   n(t )b j (t )dt  =  E  n(t )  b j (t )dt = 0
0  0

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 RANDOM VARIABLES (5)
T
n j =  n(t )b j (t )dt
0
• variance σ2=N0/2
• statistically independent

T T
 T T 
E  n j ni  = E   n(t )b j (t )dt  n( x)bi ( x)dx  = E    n(t )n( x )b j (t ) bi ( x )dtdx  =
0 0  0 0 
T T T T
N0
=   E  n(t )n( x)  b j (t ) bi ( x)dtdx =    (t − x)b j (t ) bi ( x)dtdx =
0 0 0 0
2
N0
T
 N 0 / 2 if j = i
=
2 0 b j (t )bi (t )dt =  0 if j  i
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 RANDOM NOISE IN THE SIGNAL SPACE

Given n(t) we have computed the projections on the basis

signals: T
n j =  n(t )b j (t )dt
0

Let us introduce nS (t ) =  n j b j (t )
j

Clearly, n(t)  S : it is the portion of n(t) belonging to S

In general n(t )  nS (t )

21
 RANDOM NOISE EXTERNAL TO THE
SIGNAL SPACE

We have n(t ) = nS (t ) + e(t )

e(t) = portion of n(t) external to S

Fixed the time instant t = t*

nS(t*) and e(t*)

statistically independent
(Proof for exercise)
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 RANDOM NOISE EXTERNAL TO THE
SIGNAL SPACE
Proof
E  nS (t*)e(t*) = 0 = E  nS (t*)  E e(t*) 

nS(t*) and e(t*)

statistically independent

The noise added outside the signal space is

statistically independent

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 RECEIVED SIGNAL IN THE SIGNAL SPACE

We know that r (t )  S

Let us project r(t) on the basis signals.

B = ( b j (t ) )
d

j =1

The j-th projection is:

T
rj =  r (t )b j (t )dt
0

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 RECEIVED SIGNAL IN THE SIGNAL SPACE

Define rS (t ) =  rj b j (t ) Obviously rS (t )  S
j

In general r (t )  rS (t )
But r (t ) = s (t ) + n(t ) = s (t ) + nS (t ) + e(t )
S S

Then r (t ) = rS (t ) + e(t ) with rS (t ) = s (t ) + nS (t )

25
DECISION PROBLEM IN THE SIGNAL SPACE

ORIGINAL PROBLEM:
P1 given r(t)=s(t)+n(t) → recover s(t)

EQUIVALENT PROBLEM:
P2
given rS(t) =s(t)+nS(t) → recover s(t)

The only difference is e(t):

noise (external to S) which is
statistically independent with respect to
both s(t) and nS(t)

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 DECISION PROBLEM IN THE SIGNAL SPACE

➢ rS(t) is a sufficient statistics for solving the problem

➢ It is sufficient to work in the signal space S

➢ All the other (infinite) dimensions do not carry useful

information, but only noise

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 DECISION PROBLEM: VECTORIAL
FORMULATION

PROBLEM:
P2 given rS(t) =s(t)+nS(t) → recover s(t)

The three signals belong to S

Vector representation

28
 DECISION PROBLEM: VECTORIAL
FORMULATION

rS (t ) = s (t ) + nS (t ) r = sT + n

T
r = (r1 ,..., rj ,..., rd ) rj =  r (t )b j (t )dt
0

T
sT = ( s1 ,..., s j ,..., s d ) s j =  s(t )b j (t )dt
0
T

n = (n1 ,..., n j ,..., nd ) n j =  n(t )b j (t )dt

0
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 RECEIVED VECTOR

The received vector r (in the signal space) is given by

r = sT + n

Where sT = ( s1 ,..., s j ,..., sd )  M is the transmitted signal

and n = (n1 ,..., n j ,..., nd ) is the noise vector (added in

the signal space)

For each component we have rj = s j + n j

30
 RECEIVED VECTOR

rj = s j + n j

The components rj are

Gaussian random variables with

• Mean E[rj]=sj
• Variance σ2[rj]=N0/2
• Statistically independent

( E[r r ] =
i j s i s j = E[ri ]E[rj ] )
31
 DECISION PROBLEM: VECTORIAL
FORMULATION
PROBLEM:
P2 given rS(t) =s(t)+nS(t) → recover s(t)

PROBLEM:
P3
given r=sT+n→ recover sT

IMPORTANT:
given r(t), the vector r is easy to compute
(the basis signals are known)

32
 DECISION CRITERION

PROBLEM:
P3
given r=sT+n→ recover sT

At the receiver side, given r

we want to choose a received signal sR  M

Goal: make the right choice: s R = sT

Unfortunately this in not always possible, due to noise.

33
 DECISION CRITERION

Given r we have to establish a decision criterion which

determines the choice of sR

Minimization of symbol (signal) error probability

PS (e) = P( s R  sT )

34
 DECISION CRITERION
PROBLEM:
P3
given r=sT+n→ recover sT

Let us suppose to receive a given r=ρ Rd

→ we choose sR  M such that PS(e) is minimum

decision criterion

C1 s R = arg min  P( s R  sT | r =  ) 
s i M

3
5
 DETECTION

Problem of deciding which one, among a set of mutually

exclusive alternatives, is correct.
➢ A random variable X with m possible sample values with
known a priori probability P(X=x)

➢ We observe another random variable Y which is connected to

X by known probabilities P(Y=y|X=x) called likelihoods
When an experiment is performed, two samples
xX and yY are extracted.
The decision maker observes y but not x.
Let us suppose to receive a given r=ρ Rd
3
→ we choose sR  M such that PS(e) is minimum 6
 DETECTION

Given y , the decision maker makes a decision d(y)=x’

The decision is correct if x’=x

Decision criterion adopted for choosing d(y):

Maximization of correct decision P(x’ = x)

=
Minimization of wrong decision P(x’  x)

3
7
 MAP CRITERION

It is easy to show that the decision criterion must be

a MAXIMUM A POSTERIORI (MAP) criterion

d ( y ) = arg max  P( X = x | Y = y ) 
x

38
 MAP CRITERION

Proof
P( X '  X ) =  P( X '  X , X = x, Y = y ) =
x y

=  P( X '  X | X = x, Y = y )P ( X = x, Y = y ) =
x y

=  P( X '( y )  x | X = x, Y = y )P( X = x | Y = y ) P (Y = y ) =
x y

 
=    (1 −  X '( y ), x ) P( X = x | Y = y ) P(Y = y )
y  x 

X '( y ) = arg min z  (1 −  z , x ) P( X = x | Y = y ) = arg max x P( X = x | Y = y)

x

3
9
 ML CRITERION
P(Y = y | X = x) P( X = x)
Bayes theorem P( X = x | Y = y ) =
P(Y = y)
d ( y ) = arg max  P( X = x | Y = y ) 
x

d ( y ) = arg max  P(Y = y | X = x) P( X = x) 

x

1
For equiprobable hypothesis P( X = x) =
m
d ( y ) = arg max  P(Y = y | X = x) 
x

40
 ML CRITERION

MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD (ML) criterion

d ( y ) = arg max  P(Y = y | X = x) 

x

41
 DETECTION PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER
SIDE

Random variable X  transmitted signal sT  M

Observed variable Y  received signal r = sT + n  S

42
 DETECTION PROBLEM AT THE RECEIVER
SIDE
r = sT + n

Connection between r and sT f r (  | sT = s i )

This is a Gaussian density function centered around s i with

variance N0/2 in each dimension

43
 GAUSSIAN DENSITY FUNCTION

Example: sinlgle Gaussian random variable r

• Mean µ
• Variance σ2
• density function:
1 (  −  )2
fr ( ) = exp(− )
2 2 2

44
 GAUSSIAN DENSITY FUNCTION

Example: pair of Gaussian random variables r1 r2

• Mean µ
• Variance σ2
• statistically independent
• density function:
1 ( 1 −  )2 1 ( 2 −  )2
f r1r2 ( 1 2 ) = exp(− ) exp(− )
2 2 2
2 2 2

1 ( 1 −  )2 + ( 2 −  ) 2
f r1r2 ( 1 2 ) = exp(− )
( 2 ) 2
2 2

45
 GAUSSIAN DENSITY FUNCTION

f r (  | sT = s i )

r = Array of d Gaussian random variables

• Mean µ=sij
• Variance σ2=N0/2
• Statistically independent
• density function d

1
j =1
(  j − sij ) 2
f r (  | sT = s i ) = exp(− )
(  N0 ) d
N0

46
 ML CRITERION

d ( y ) = arg max  P(Y = y | X = x) 

x

For our problem becomes:

given r =  choose s R = d (  ) = arg max  f r (  | sT = s i ) 

si M

C2

47
 ML CRITERION

Using the expression of f r (  | sT = s i )

  d 2  
   (  j − sij )  
 1  − j =1  
sR = arg max exp
s i M  (  N ) d  N0  
   
0

   

d
sR = arg min  (  j − sij ) 2
si M
j =1

48
 MINIMUM DISTANCE CRITERION

d
sR = arg min  (  j − sij )2
si M j =1

By introducing the Euclidean distance between vectors in Rd:

d
d E2 (  − si ) =  (  j − sij ) 2
j =1

We have: sR = arg min d E2 (  − s i )

s i M

49
 MINIMUM DISTANCE CRITERION

The ML criterion is equivalent to a

minimum distance criterion

C3 given r =  choose s R = arg min d E (  − si )

2
s M i

50
 VORONOI REGION

given r =  choose sR = arg min d E2 (  − s i )

si M

This decision criterion associates to any vector   R

d

a received signal sR  M

We can introduce the

Voronoi (decision) region V ( s i )
=set of all received vectors which determine
the choice sR = si


V (si ) =   R d : s R = si 
51
 VORONOI REGION

Set of all received vectors

which determine the choice sR = si
When do we have sR = si ?

When   R d is nearest to s than to all other constellation

signals
V ( si ) = {  R d : d E2 (  , s i )  d E2 (  , s) s  M }

52
 VORONOI REGION CRITERION
NOTE:

If we receive  V (si ) We certainly choose sR = s i

The minimum distance criterion

given r =  choose sR = arg min d E2 (  − s i )
si M

can be expressed as a Voronoi region criterion

C 4 given r =  if   V ( s) select sR = s
53