FIELD GUIDE:

Cold Weather Response

 For more information contact us at:

TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT
Lower William Street | Southampton | SO14 5QE | United Kingdom

T: +44(0)23 8033 1551

F: +44(0)23 8033 1972
E: [email protected]

Disclaimer
This Field Guide has been developed to act solely as a guidance document and the advice given should be incorporated into company philosophy
for oil spill response operations alongside suitable training and exercises to ensure safe and appropriate operations. Whilst every effort has been
made to provide accurate and complete information, no responsibility can be accepted for loss or damage, howsoever caused, as a result of
actions taken based on the contents of this Field Guide.

Copyright
The information, content, graphics, text, images, trade names and logos (the ‘Materials’) produced by Oil Spill Response Limited (OSRL) and
contained in this Field Guide are protected by copyright and other intellectual property laws, under national laws and international treaties.
OSRL retains the right, title, interest and intellectual property rights in and to the Materials. With the exception of photocopying any forms
contained in this Field Guide for use on response operations and exercises, and unless authorised by OSRL, the materials contained in this Field
Guide may not be replicated, reprinted or distributed and must be used solely for guidance, personal information and non-commercial purposes.
 Foreword and Contents
Safety 2
This Field Guide is intended to be used by anyone seeking an
overview of the operational and technical aspects of oil spill Key Steps 4
response in extreme cold environments. Included is information Plan and Train:
on the key steps of cold weather response; from how oil behaves Operational Activities 5
Operational Considerations 6
in low temperatures to how to prepare for an oil spill, along with
Know The Cold Climate 7
advice on how to respond to ensure the most successful outcome
in cold weather environments. Oil Spill:
Oil Behaviour in Cold Climates 9
Environmental Locations 10
Responding effectively to oil spills in cold weather requires Location-Specific Weathering 11
personnel who are adequately trained, sufficient resources Preparation:
which are appropriate for the environment and prior planning Predicting Oil Movements in Cold Climates 12
to determine the most suitable response options. To ensure a Decision Making Process 13
successful cold weather response, it is important to: Respond:
Assess the Spill 14
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

 dhere to advice on health and safety aspects of all oil spill

A Surveillance 15
response activities At Sea Containment and Recovery 16
Surface Dispersant Application 18
Prepare and train for predicted risks At Sea Controlled In-Situ Burning 19
Shoreline Clean-up Assessment Technique (SCAT) 20
S elect and advise on the response techniques most suitable to Shoreline Response 21
the environment and oiling conditions Ice and Snow 22
Containment of Oil on Ice and Snow 23
Ensure communication is effective amongst all parties. Containment of Oil Under Ice and Snow 24
Recovery of Oil from Ice and Snow 25
Wildlife Response 26
Waste Management 27
Selecting Response Techniques and Surveillance Methods 28
Record and Report: Documentation 30
Tools 31
1
 Safety

Cold weather conditions pose distinct challenges for the These risks can be minimised by: Standard spill response PPE requirements;
responder, with several safety, health and operational Overalls
risks.
surveilance checklist Coldchecklist
aerial surveilance weather can significantly affect the human Identifying the risks through a
Oil resistant suit (such as Tyvek)
body, with temperature drops, wind (chills) and dampness comprehensive risk assessment process
causing heat loss from the body. Ensuring adequate and and implementing mitigation measures Life jacket (if operating near water)
appropriate cold weather personnel protective equipment to reduce them where applicable Safety glasses
(PPE) is worn and used correctly will reduce the risk to
 ommunicating the risks and mitigation
C Gloves
health and safety.
measures in place through a safety brief Ear
defenders (to be worn whilst
In addition, it is likely that there will be reduced operational prior to any operations being carried out machinery is running)
efficiency of response equipment due to the impact Implentation of scheduled Steel toe cap boots
of the cold; such as brittle failure of freezing of water, communications between field crews
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

gelling of fuels, lower battery capacity and increased fuel Aditional PPE standards for cold weather;
and Command Centre as well as a buddy
consumption. Three layers - base layer (to wick
system for those working in the field moisture away from the skin),
insulating middle layer or layers
The location of the spill can also pose risks, with ice in  arm up shelters are likely to be
W (to provide warmth), waterproof
particular providing a dynamic environment to work required and the working schedule will insulated outer layer (for protection
against wind, rain, snow)
in. A response on ice will require an assessment of the need careful management
weight-bearing capacity of the ice, along with changes Insulated underwear, overalls,
in wind direction, which can cause ice to quickly open  erial spotters, hazing and security may
A footwear, gloves and hard hat liner

or close. The spill location may also be remote and/or be required to protect personnel from Tinted safety specs for glare
provide access and logistical challenges, including shorter wildlife
Yaktracks/Ice Spikes for walking on
daylight periods and long periods of winter darkness. snow and ice
Furthermore, wildlife may pose a threat.
2
 Safety
RISKS IMPACTS MITIGATION MEASURES
Hypothermia/Dehydration Risk of chilblains, trench foot, Correct combination of clothing and activity, keep core body temperature above 36oC.
fingertip fissures, frostnip, Allow extra time and schedule work patterns.
frostbite, cold burn, snow Warm up shelters should be provided.
blindness, hypothermia, sunburn, Skin contact with metal should be avoided.
windburn. See the Tools Section for more information on Wind Chill Effects.
Slips, trips and falls, including increased risk on ice and Potential for minor injuries such as Dangers should be highlighted in the safety brief given prior to operations commencing.
snow covered ground cuts, bruises or minor fractures. Appropriate footwear to be worn with added ice grips where necessary.
Recognise high risks of working on or around oily surfaces. Ensure a secure access route to
work area.
Every fall to be reported.
Working on ice and around ice-infested waters Potential for falling into icy waters, Site safety survey to be conducted and communicated.
becoming stranded, drowning. Ice conditions to be assessed for thickness, air voids to be identified by trained personnel.
Ensure awareness of currents. No lone working near water bodies. Lifejackets to be worn.
Dangerous and unfamiliar wildlife Potential for coming into contact Refer to local knowledge. Appoint a lookout and communicate the risks. Ensure that an
with wildlife native to cold emergency plan is in place. Hazing by trained individuals may be necessary.
environments.
Exposure to Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and Could cause nausea and in the Enforce a site entry protocol. Provide gas monitoring devices and appropriate respiratory
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

potentially Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) from the oil case of H2S death in extreme cases. PPE as required.
Presence of hydrocarbon vapours Weathering may be slower in cold environments.
may also present an explosion risk.

Small boats operating in water and in ice-fested waters Possible boat impacting with ice Ensure that boat operators are trained and immersion suits to be worn.
floes on the water’s surface. Maintain a watch for ice.
Manual handling of equipment and snow/ice Potential for back injuries. Before any deployment manual handling training should be given to anyone involved in
the reponse. Ensure that weights are clearly marked on equipment. Make sure that lifting
equipment is available as well as appropriate snow/ice handling equipment, and employ
group lifts where necessary.
Noise (>85dBA) Danger of damage to hearing if Ear defenders to be provided and worn.
exposed to loud machinery for
prolonged periods of time.

Whilst this table lists some of the common hazards that are likely to be present whilst conducting operations in cold weather, a full site specific risk
assessment should always be conducted prior to operations commencing.

3
 Key Steps

1 ! 4
2 3 4
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Plan and Spill Record and

Preparation Respond
Train Report

4
 Plan and Train: Operational Activities
To ensure the maximum success of operations in cold weather environments, key assests and personnel with training and knowledge
should be identified prior to any incident occuring.

Planning for Response Operational Teams

Many cold weather environments are The Operational Team should comprise of trained individuals with the appropriate skills to complete the
tasking assignments. The should be able to;
extremely remote and dynamic. Local
knowledge of the area is likely to be vital in Ensure the health and safety of those involved in Ensure the environmental impacts of any
the clean-up operations operations are minimised
the event of a response.
Conduct impact assessments and provide Record and report on the activities of the spill
It is recommended that prior to any incident recommendations on the suitable treatment response site to Incident Command
methods for the site
occurring, consultation with the various
stakeholders occurs to determine priority Ensure the successful deployment, set-up and
areas for protection or clean-up operations operation of equipment
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

using Net Environmental Benefit Analysis

(NEBA). The consultation should involve: Training and Knowledge
Health and safety aspects of cold weather operations, e.g. warm-up shelter, correct PPE, dangerous wildlife
Local Authorities
Set-up and operation of equipment and techniques
Local Environmental Groups
Cold weather response strategies and tactics
Community Representatives
Understanding the information that Incident Command will require
Other Stakeholders
Additional consideration of working in remote areas
Open and clear communication is an integral
Equipment requirements for cold environments (see Tools section in this Field Guide for further detail)
part of effective response operations.

5
 Plan and Train: Operational Considerations
There are many different factors that will determine the most appropriate response strategy for cold environments. In order to conduct
a successful response, these factors need to be planned and trained for from the outset.
Response Considerations
SPILL Assess the Spill
Oil Type Characteristics, behaviour, impact
Assessing the oil spill in different locations and during different seasons.

Surveillance
Finding and quantifying oil in different conditions.
Environment Type of surface - snow, ice
Conditions – weather, stability At Sea Containment and Recovery
The additional challenges of containment and recovery in extreme cold climates
and the presence of ice.
Safety of operational area - accessibility,
Surface Dispersant Application
Safety stability.
Personnel facilities available in area Applicability of dispersants in ice affected waters.

At Sea Controlled In-Situ Burning

The use of in-situ burning techniques in cold environments.
Light, medium, heavy oiling
Degree of Oiling
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Areas of high concentration Shoreline Clean-up Assessment Technique

The differences in SCAT techniques for cold environments.

Shoreline Response
Environmental, socio-economic - prioritise
Sensitivities Damage and impact assessment
The time of year will affect the impact on the shoreline and influence the clean-
up options.

Ice and Snow Response

There are additional response options for the containment and recovery of oil
Enhance natural recovery or cause more damage from on and under snow and ice.
NEBA Effective natural recovery for restoration
Wildlife Response
Wildlife unique to cold weather environments may require specialised response
plans.
CLEAN-UP
Waste Management
Different collection methods and waste streams may be generated in cold
climates due to environmental and logistical constraints.
6
 Plan and Train: Know the Cold Climate
Conditions can vary greatly both daily and seasonally. This will affect how the response takes place, therefore it is vital to plan ahead
ensuring the success of the response and the health and safety of personnel. Key environmental and operational factors need to be
considered when responding in cold weather environments.
Environmental Features Operational Issues
Habitat Seasonality Efficiency Impacts
The population of various species vary throughout the seasons, Cold temperatures generally reduce the effectiveness of personnel
with a higher diversity and concentration of species found in the and equipment during a response. The increased time it takes to
summer period. Be aware of any species endemic to the area, in carry out assignments must be taken into account when planning.
particular those considered at risk of extinction.

Ecology Sensitivity Vessel Operations

There may be an extreme seasonal variability in the ecological Ice-infested waters will require the use of ice class vessels; those
sensitivity of the spill area. It is important to understand how the with a stronger structural integrity enabling navigation through sea
environment is likely to change in order to determine the suitability ice. The Master of the vessel, who will be a trained ice navigator,
of a response strategy for protracted operations. will need to plan for changing ice floes to ensure tsafe operations.
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Unique Environments Logistical Support

There are a number of unique environments specific to cold Cold weather locations are often remote with little or no
climates, such as glacier margins and tundra coasts. In addition infrastructure. The Incident Management Team (IMT) need to be
there are seasonal oceanographic changes that take place such as aware of the challenges associated with providing logistical support
rapid ice freeze or break-up, all which must be taken into account such as the ability to supply provisions, appropriate landing areas,
when planning operations. general access to the operational site and safety considerations.
Weathering Impacts Working Conditions
Oil behaviour is likely to be different to that experienced when Seasonal daylight variability will need to be taken into account
spilled in more temperate climates. Slower weathering rates and when planning tasking assignments. General health and safety
longer persistence of spilled oil should be expected. concerns of personnel will need to be prioritised to avoid potential
hypothermia, frostbite and other risks associated with working in
cold environments.
7
 Plan and Train: Know the Cold Climate
Typical Seasonal Ice Cycle
SPRING BREAK-UP SUMMER OPEN WATER
Days lengthen rapidly and the sun rises higher in the sky. Both of these changes As the Earth continues receiving energy from the sun during this time, the land,
bring more solar radiation to the Arctic during this period. This begins a chain which is mostly free of snow by now, can warm up. On clear days when the wind
reaction, as melting snow reflects less solar radiation is not coming from the cold ocean, the snow cover
(50% to 60%) than dry snow, allowing more energy to on the sea ice disappears and ponds of melting water
be absorbed and the melting to take place faster. As start to form. This further reduces the amount of
the snow disappears on land, the underlying surfaces sunlight that the ice reflects, helping more ice to melt.
absorb even more energy, and begin to warm rapidly. Aerial
Reconnaissance
WINTER FROZEN CONDITIONS AUTUMN FREEZE-UP
The sun remains very low in the sky or may not rise The days get rapidly shorter. As the amount of solar
at all. Where it does rise, the days are short, and the radiation available to the surface rapidly decreases,
sun’s low position in the sky means that, even at noon, KEY
the OBJECTIVES
temperatures follow suit. The sea ice begins to
not much energy is reaching the surface. Furthermore, most of the small refreeze, and eventually gets a fresh snow cover, causing it to reflect even more
amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface is reflected away by the of the dwindling amount of sunlight reaching it.
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

bright snow cover.

Ice Snow
Sea ice does not simply grow and melt. During Snow can be designated by the shape of its
its lifespan, it is very dynamic. Due to the flakes, description of how it is falling, and by
combined action of winds, currents and air how it collects on the ground.
temperature fluctuations, sea ice expanses
Considerations for Ice and Snow
typically undergo a significant amount of Ice rarely forms in uniform thickness.
deformation. Sea ice is classified according to Fast moving water and water
whether or not it is able to drift, and according containing salts may continue to flow
to its age. at low temperatures. Ice and snow
insulate the ground and water below
them.

8
 Oil Spill: Oil Behaviour in Cold Climates
Oil spills in cold climates can occur in a number of different environments. The type of environment will influence the most appropriate
strategy to be used and the fate of oil.

Cold Weather Effects on Oil Properties Cold Weather Effects on Oil Weathering
Oils can be categorised into four different groups, according to their SPREADING
specific gravity (or API). Within these groups, the oil’s are characterised by EMULSIFICATION
properties including density, viscosity and pour point. It is these properties EVAPORATION
that determine how an oil will behave once spilled in cold climates. DISSOLUTION
Environmental factors such as ambient air and water temperatures affect BIO-DEGRADATION
the behaviour of the oil. NATURAL DEGRADATION Y
NC
The viscosity of the oil will be higher in cold temperatures RED CIE
UC
ED EFFI
D
RAT ASE
ES CRE
If water temperatures approach the oil’s pour point, it will cease to DE
flow
Biodegradation may be slower in cold environments Once oil has spilled, it is exposed to a wide variety of physical, chemical
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

and biological processes that will begin to break down the oil changing
its composition, behaviour and toxicity. These processes are known as
weathering and apply to open ocean and ice-bound environments. These
process are greatly influenced by the cold weather environment, with
both low temperatures and the presence of ice greatly impeding rate of
spread and weathering of the oil. However, the extent of the influence
will be dependent on the location in which the oil is present, for example,
oil in icy waters will experience rapid emulsification rather than a reduced
rate.

The behaviour and spreading of oil on snow and ice depends on the type of snow (fresh or compacted), air temperature, and the typography of
the location (flat or sloping).

9
 Oil Spill: Environmental Locations
The cold weather environment is in a constant state of flux, undergoing seasonal and annual changes that alter the environment. This
dynamism provides numerous conditions within which the clean-up of spilled oil is required.

EVAPORATION
ABSORPTION BY SNOW

LEAD OIL ON MELTWATER

OIL POOL UNDER SNOW
SNOW POOLS IN SPRING
OIL MIGRATION UP
FIRST YEAR ICE BRINE CHANNELS
FISSURE MULTI-YEAR ICE
PUMPING
UNDER ICE OIL TRAPPED
ENCAPSULATED OIL
IN ICE RUBBLE
OIL POOL
SESSILE DROPS OF OIL, MOBILE
DRIFT WITH OR BEING ENCAPSULATED IN ICE DISSOLUTION AND
CURRENT MOUSSE FORMATION
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Categorising Possible Oil Locations

Oil on Water Surface: Open Water Oil on Water Surface: Mixed with Ice Oil Submerged: Under Broken Ice
Oil is less likely to spread and
Oil is exposed to typical Oil is exposed to typical as it is not exposed to wind
weathering processes. weathering processes. and wave action, this will also
reduce natural dispersion.

Oil Beneath Ice Oil on Ice Oil in Ice: Encapsulated

Oil is less likely to spread and Oil is exposed to wind and ice Oil is less likely to spread and
as it is not exposed to wind movement, and will spread it is not exposed to wind and
and wave action, this will also according to ice floe direction. wave action.
reduce natural dispersion.

10
 Oil Spill: Location-Specific Weathering
The location in which oil is spilled will influence weathering processes of the oil.

IN OPEN WATER (>10% ICE) IN ICE (WITH INCREASING ICE COVERAGE)

Similar to oil on land, the rate of oil spreading on ice is controlled primarily
Cold water can increase oil viscosity and reduce the rate of spreading. As
by the oil viscosity, so in cold temperatures the rate will slow. Deformed
Spreading a result, an oil slick on cold water is usually thicker and occupies a smaller
ice features may create pools of oil whilst snow will absorb the oil, further
area than it otherwise would in a more temperate climate.
reducing spread.

Oil will drift according to wind and currents, traditionally 100% wind, 3%
Drift current.
If the ice is drifting, the oil drift will be affected by the ice.

The thin oil slicks formed across the surface will maintain an initial steady
Cold temperatures and increased oil slick thickness (due to confinement in
Evaporation rate of evaporation, but it will be reduced in comparison to a more
ice) reduces both the rate and degree of evaporation.
temperature climate.

Natural dispersion is driven by wind or wave action and therefore is The rate of natural dispersion will be low due to the reduced energy
Natural Dispersion dependent on sea states rather than the temperature. However, higher conditions and opportunities for mixing when oil is spilled on the ice.
viscosity may result in lower natural dispersion. However, ice floes can created a source of surface turbulence.
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Emulsification is dependent on wave action mixing water droplets into the

Emulsification spilled oil.
Emulsification is likely to be less significant with reduced energy conditions.

Oil contains water-soluble compounds which may dissolve in the On ice, very few of the water-soluble components of the oil could diffuse
Dissolution surrounding water. down to the bottom of the ice sheet.

Large quantities of naturally occurring bacteria are likely to be present even

Biodegredation in cold water environments. These organisms consume the hydrocarbons Relevant bacteria exist in ice areas to break down hydrocarbons.
in the oil to degrade it naturally.

Due to the natural dynamism of cold environments; from the instability of moving ice to the changing weather conditions, it should be anticipated that the
weathering of the spilled oil may not mimic behaviour in warmer climates.

11
 Preparation: Predicting Oil Movements in Cold Climates
Once oil has spilled, it will begin to move. Being able to detect, track and predict the movement of the oil will help guide the development
of the response operations.

Identify Slick Location

The location of oil spills and slicks must first be determined. This can be accomplished through surveillance;
typically from visual observations, aerial surveillance, remote sensing or tracking devices in the water.

Oil located under ice or under snow may present a challenge for remote sensing. Detection and tracking
are very difficult and often impossible if the oil is more dense than the water, i.e. submerged below the
surface. Cameras and lights have been successfully used to detect oil under ice.

Predict Slick Movement

Predicting where a slick is likely to move to will help with the development of overall response options.

On open water at sea, conducting a simple analysis of the speed and direction of the wind and current
data can assist in modelling the movement of oil.

Oil in broken ice is likely to move in the same direction and at the same speed as the ice. Wind has a
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

strong effect on the movement of broken ice and has little additional effect on oil.
Oil spills on and under sea ice tend not to move independently. If the ice is drifting, the oil will drift
with it. Currents between 5cm/s to 30cm/s are required to move oil underneath the ice.

Model Oil Spill Behaviour

Models can be used to predict the behaviour of the oil spill, including the mass balance of a slick, over a
period of time. Where possible, the model should be validated by in-field information. Currently available
models approximate oil movement in ice by assuming that the oil follows the ice in its response to winds
and currents. A model is only as reliable as the inputted information and requires expert interpretation.

Ice-ice and oil-ice interactions complicate the task of modelling oil movement.

12
 Preparation: Decision Making Process
1. Assess Available Information 8. Respond Incident Management System (IMS)
Define the geographical area. Implement strategies developed in the response An Incident Management System (IMS) is a process driven
Obtain local knowledge. plans for water- and land-based operations. tool used to organise resources involved in a response. Using
a standardised process, an Incident Action Plan (IAP) is
Estimate the spill path, resources at risk and
persistence of the oil. developed to meet response objectives. The goal of IMS is
to ensure every decision that is made is based on accurate
Identify safety, environmental, ecological and
cultural constraints.
7. Obtain Approvals and Permits information, presented in a format understood by all and
communicated in a timely manner so that the right plan can
Obtain approval of response plans from person in
charge or command team. be implemented.
Obtain permission for access to private property.
2. Define Objectives To guide management through the stages of a response,
Develop response objectives. Secure other permits, e.g., disposal, incineration of planning should be process driven. The various steps that
materials.
Define priorities. should be followed in the planning process are illustrated in
Identify acceptable recovery or treatment the Operational Planning ‘P’ Cycle.
levels. Preparing for
Tactics Planning
the Planning
Establish local (site) response objectives and 6. Prepare Operational Plans Management
Meeting Meeting
priorities.
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Develop a long-range regional response plan. Preparing for the IAP Prep
Tactics Meeting & Approval
Prepare individual (site or group) response plans.
Command &
3. Develop Strategies General Staff Operations
Meeting Briefing
Develop response strategies to meet the objectives
and priorities. IC/UC Develop/ Execute Plan New Ops
Update Objectives & Assess Period
Meetng
5. Evaluate Operational Feasibility
Identify physical, ecological, safety and logistical Initial UC Meeting
constraints that might affect the proposed operations.
4. Select Response Options

Initial Response
Incident Brief
Evaluate the Net Environmental Benefit of the
Define acceptable and available methods and proposed actions. Initial Response &
tactics to achieve the response objectives and Assessment
strategies. Evaluate the practicality and capacity of the proposed
operations and procedures. Notifications
Incident/Event

13
 Respond: Assess the Spill
The primary aim of any spill response is to prevent or minimize damage to the environment and to reduce the recovery time of
impacted sensitivities. The initial collection and recording of relevant oil spill information will infer the characteristics of the spill and
how the response options may need to be adapted in a cold weather environment and any changing conditions over time.
Assess Extent of Oiling Consider the Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA)
Assessment may take place on-shore, offshore The spill response objective should be
or by air. It is important to record and document to prevent or minimise damage to the
the oil spill and surrounding environment in environment. This includes short-term and
long-term effects on the natural, physical,
detail. This can be done by taking geo-referenced
economic and social environment, including
photos, creating annotated maps and sketches risks to human health, that may be attributable
of the area (including scales), and noting any to the spill or from subsequent spill response
sensitivities not already identified by previous activities. These potential impacts should be
planning. understood, which may require engagement
with appropriate stakeholders. NEBA
Assessment aims to: supports the development of a cold weather
response strategy by assisting in the selection
Verify the presence of oil. of response options to achieve a net benefit
for the response overall, to a particular
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Quantify the presence of oil. geographical area or for a defined collection

of sensitivities. The balancing of response
Monitor the success of response strategies. options should be conducted during all stages
of the response. In cold weather and ice
Assess the local area for sensitivities or environments, the effectiveness, feasibility
wildlife. and regulatory controls for each response
option must be considered in determining
Determine or confirm the ice coverage or
which response option(s) will achieve the
stage.
desired and best outcome for the response
and how they will change over time.

Assessment should be used to support all other response techniques throughout the response to ensure effectiveness. It can also be used when the
operating environment is not safe to work in, whether due to temporary weather conditions, inaccessibility, or sociopolitical reasons (such as exposure
to unmitigated health risks). In cold weather and ice environments, assessment is crucial to determine whether a response is feasible and to predict how
the environmental conditions may change over the duration of the response.

14
 Respond: Surveillance
Methods of detection, monitoring and tracking are key to locating oil, targeting areas for immediate response, forecasting future
movement and adjusting response plans according to site-specific and environmental factors, including changing weather windows.
Many cold environments have low visibility due to fog, precipitation, wind-blown snow and darkness, therefore there is no one sensor
that will work across a broad range of cold weather conditions. Planning scenarios should include a flexible combination of sensors
operating from diverse platforms, including aircraft, satellites, and on-ice teams.
Airborne Surveillance Remote Sensing
Use of airborne remote sensing Many sensors are hindered in cold
technologies, supplemented with visual climates due to low visibility conditions,
observations from trained observers however, Synthetic Aperture Radar
are highly effective in identifying the (SAR) satellite systems are not affected
presence of oil on water. Side Looking by darkness or poor visibility and
Airborne Radar (SLAR) helps overcome provide a high spatial resolution of
problems of poor weather conditions imagery. These sensors are important
and darkness. Use of existing airborne in documenting the changing ice
sensors can detect and map oil among conditions in the vicinity of the spill.
ice in some situations; capabilities
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

continue to be developed.

Tracking Buoys & Beacons Surface Surveillance

Tracking buoys can be used to monitor Systems can be deployed either from
the direction and progress of oil. In the surface of the water, by vessel
addition, in-country oceanographic or from the surface of the ice. For
and meteorological services can example, ground-penetrating radar
help predict the movement of oil by (GPR) uses radar pulses to image
inferring from weather patterns the the subsurface to detect changes in
likely path of the spill. material, and can be deployed on the
ice surface and from aircraft platforms.
Additionally, trained dogs have proven
to be reliable in identifying small oil
spills in snow and on ice.

15
 Respond: At Sea Containment and Recovery
The recovery of oil in cold weather environments, and in particular, ice-infested waters, often requires the adaptation of existing
response techniques and equipment to account for the environmental and oceanographic conditions.
Determine Priorities Containment
The containment and recovery of an oil spill utilises floating barriers A conventional booming plan will be most effective in open water
(booms) to contain the oil in sufficiently concentrated quantities to and in areas where the concentration of ice cover up to a maximum
enable recovery devices (skimmers) to remove the oil from the surface. of 30% of the surface area. Single vessel recovery skimming systems
Before deploying boom, the priorities of the response operation must with short sections of boom attached to a sweep arm can manoeuvre
be established such as choosing the correct boom type. Operating between large ice floes and operate in higher ice concentrations than
conditions must also be taken into account as wave height, swells, conventional boom. As ice concentrations increase beyond 70%, the
currents and ice formations can cause the boom to fail. To deploy boom ice provides more of a barrier against oil spreading and in dense ice,
correctly, the following will be required: will completely prevent oil from spreading and thinning out resulting
in natural containment.
Vessel will need adequate deck space and ideally
Deployment Vessel an open stern. Operating in cold climates may
require an ice strengthened hull.

Tow Vessel Vessel will need a suitable means of securing the

OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

tow line in a safe manner.

Suitable Storage There will need to be adequate space to store the

oil. In cold climates storage may need to be heated.

Different booms are suitable in certain

environments. Specialised strengthened booms
Correct Boom Type may be required for operating in ice infested
waters.

Will be dependent on oil type and exact operating

Recovery Device conditions. Specialist skimmers may be required
with water or steam injection for example.
To ensure deployment is successful, a strategy
Deployment Plan must be agreed and communicated to all parties
involved with trained Responders to execute the
plan.

16
 Respond: At Sea Containment and Recovery
Any mechanical recovery system working in ice-covered waters needs to deflect the ice in order to gain access to the oil and
effectively recover. Several types of skimmers have been developed specifically for recovering oil in ice-covered regions. These
skimmers are often brush, belts or drums rotating through the slick and capable of recovering oil while processing small ice pieces.

Oleophilic Skimmer Weir Skimmer Mechanical Skimmer

An oleophilic skimmer uses discs, drums brushes A weir skimmer sits on the oil/water interface, A mechanical skimmer physically removes oil
or ropes which have oleophilic (“oil loving”) the oil flows into the hopper to be pumped into from the water’s surface with the use of nets,
properties. The oleophilic surface picks up the oil storage. drums or crane-operated buckets.
which is later removed by scrapers and pumped
S kimmer is more effective on oil of a higher 
Skimmer is effective on oils of a higher
into storage.
viscosity than the oleophilic skimmer. viscosity or weathered, emulsified oil.
The amount of water collected is reduced
Recovery efficiency is impacted by weather There is the potential for a high percentage of
compared to other types of skimmers.
conditions; wave action tends to cause a water to be recovered and a thick layer of oil
Rope mop systems can be particularily useful relatively high proportion of water to be is required to be effective.
in ice-infested waters. recovered. Their operation can also be The effects of cold temperatures must be
negatively affected by the presence of debris taken into account when planning and
The skimmers can be ineffective on some
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

in the water which may block the hopper and carrying out containment and recovery
emulsified oil operations. Skimmers can be equipped
the pump.
with heating systems and/or insulated.
If dispersant has been used oil will not adhere
Sometimes simple water injection is
to the oleophilic surface. enough to help in cold temperatures.

17
 Respond: Surface Dispersant Application
Dispersants are agents that can be applied to the surface of a spill at sea in order to break the surface tension and allow the formation
of microscopic oil droplets that are then ‘dispersed’ in the water column. By dispersing the oil, it becomes much easier for the natural
process of biodegradation to take place.
Dispersants in Cold Weather Environments Dispersant Operations
Dispersants become more viscous in cold To ensure dispersant is an effective response option, the oil, operating conditions
HYDROPHILIC (WATER-LOVING)
water (relative to their original viscosity). HEADGROUP and the logistics of the operation must be considered. Furthermore, the set-up
As a dispersant becomes more viscous, of dispersant operations and the equipment used must be appropriate for the
it will not spread as quickly or as far environment. In particular, dispersant operations in cold environments require
OLEOPHILIC (OIL-LOVING)
into the oil and water column (relative TAILGROUP equipment to be adapted, such as using flexible ‘manoeuvrable’ spray arms on
to its application in temperate waters). SURFACTANT boats.
This decreases the encounter rate and

DISPERSIBILITY
reduces the overall efficiency of the

NATURAL DISPERSION
REFINED PRODUCTS.
DO NOT DISPERSE!

RATE & TEST SPRAY

technique. Using dispersants that have

INCREASED DOSE
OIL EFFECTIVE

TEST SPRAY
low viscosities prior to application can

EMULSION
RANGE
SURFACTANT-
help lessen the impact. STABILISED OIL
DROPLET LOW VISCOSITY HIGH

Applying Dispersants in Ice Infested Waters Dispersant Effectiveness

OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Dispersants can be applied a number of ways in the cold environment; the most Low temperatures increase the viscosity of both the dispersant and the spilled
appropriate method depends on the degree of surface coverage by ice. oil. As a result, the rate of initial weathering of the oil is suppressed. This
Open Water Ice Coverage provides a longer window of opportunity for dispersant application. Dispersant
Application <10% 50% 100%
effectiveness is high until the oil reaches a certain viscosity, dispersant is effective
Platforms
on most oils until they are cooled to at least 8-10 oC below their pour point.
At this point, the effectiveness of the dispersant decreases and is no longer a
Fixed-Wing Aircraft
suitable response option.
Helicopter The presence of ice provides agitation at the oil/water interface helping to
further disperse the oil.

Boat “Static” Arms The degree of the surface coverage by ice will affect the level of dispersion. In
open drift conditions (30-90% coverage), wave energy may be sufficient enough
Boat “Manoeuvrable” Arms to disperse the oil. In more dense ice conditions, additional mixing energy is
New Technology ? likely to be required, such as using the propeller wash from ice-breaking vessels.

18
 Respond: At Sea Controlled In-Situ Burning
In-Situ Burning (ISB) is a response technique that utilises specialist boom to contain the oil which can withstand high temperatures
once ignited.
ISB in Cold Weather Environments
Operational Considerations
ISB is advocated as a safe and efficient response technique in cold Regulations
weather environments. The advantages include:
To conduct ISB operations, approval must
An effective removal rate
be sought from the correct authority and
A significant reduction in waste generation relative to other consultation should be made with other
response techniques stakeholders, referencing the NEBA process.
Regulation varies across countries, states
Fewer personnel and equipment required in comparison to
other response techniques and regional zones; each will have different
parameters detailing where and when ISB
In addition, as the presence of colder temperatures and calmer conditions reduces the spread, can be used.
weathering and emulsification of oil, the window of opportunity for the effective use of ISB may be
significant increased in cold weather environments. Health and Safety
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

In open water to approximately 30% ice cover, the oil spread and movement will not be greatly When conducting ISB operations, health
affected by the presence of the ice; open water ISB techniques may be possible. and safety is a priority as there is an
In 30% to 70% ice cover, the ice will reduce the spreading of the slick, but not completely increased risk from burns and inhalation
contain the oil. The deployment and operation of boom would be difficult. of noxious combustion gases. A full and
comprehensive risk assessment must
In 70% to 90%+ ice cover, the closely packed floes may contain the oil; if slicks are initially thick
be conducted prior to operations.
enough, they will remain that way and can be burned effectively.
Air Monitoring
Conducting ISB Operations
Oil must be contained into a pool at least 2-3mm thick. An ignition device is released into the oil, either directly Continuous air monitoring should be
from a vessel or from a helicopter using a suspended heli-torch. Boom used in ISB is specially designed to carried out on all vessels operating
withstand intense burning and high temperatures. There are several types of fire boom that will either be around ISB. If close to a shoreline,
inflated, or, of solid construction. A boom’s lifetime can vary anywhere between 2-11 burns. ISB can produce a monitoring should be conducted
residue that is normally heavy and viscous; any residue left floating on the surface can be manually recovered. around populated or sensitive areas.

19
 Respond: Shoreline Clean-up Assessment Technique (SCAT)
If a spill impacts the shoreline, it is important to have a clear and accurate understanding of the nature and extent of the oiling,
particularly before clean-up commences. The Shoreline Clean-up Assessment Techiques (SCAT) approach is used to collect data on
shoreline oiling conditions and support decision-making for clean-up.
Shoreline Clean-up Assessment Technique (SCAT) Shoreline Type
Ice and snow on the shoreline significantly alter the physical character In general, the shoreline types found in cold environments are similar
of the substrate and, most importantly, can change the surface to those of ice-free and snow-free regions, however, there are several
permeability. A solid impermeable bedrock shore with a layer of snow shore types unique to cold-climate regions:
has a permeable surface layer. A pebble beach with an ice cover has
an impermeable surface. Tundra, including ice-rich cliffs with exposed permafrost and
inundated low-lying shorelines
There are some additional considerations for planning and conducting
SCAT surveys in cold climates: Boulder barricades, formed by ice rafting on intertidal platforms
Surface oil can be covered by wind blown snow Sediment ridges created by ice, and ridges and scarred shores on
coasts with fine grained sediments
Oil will penetrate fresh snow
Glaciers and ice sheets
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Oil will enter ice cracks and leads

Oil beneath or within ice cannot be easily detected except by

As ice usually forms onshore
drilling holes through the ice
before spreading onto the
If oil is detected below the snow or under the ice, the extent should nearshore and then offshore,
be delimited with surface flags or indicated with boundary markers. the shore-ice season usually
Segments can be defined if there is a change in the snow or ice persists after nearshore ice
has broken or melted. This can
conditions or if shoreline features are evident.
reduced the ice-free period to
only a few days. Any response
When ice is present at the shoreline or in the nearshore zone, boat
operation must be aware of the
based ground surveys may be more efficient than land based surveys
as the oil may be seen more easily from the water. This can often be a varying presence of ice over the
safer method of survey. year and respective seasons.

20
 Respond: Shoreline Response
If oil is spilled at sea it could potentially drift toward shoreline under the influence of wind. Any response taken to protect the
shoreline must be appropriate for the coastal zone character, the shoreline type(s), the ice season and tidal range of the area.

Prioritise Resources
The impact of oil on a shoreline will vary depending on the time of year and the shoreline type. Furthermore, the presence of ice and/or snow will
alter how the oil impacts the shoreline. As ice is impermeable, it will tend to protect the shoreline, with oil remaining on the ice surface (unless there
are cracks present). Alternatively, fresh snow has a low density and high porosity and acts as a sorbent for light and medium oil. This reduces surface
spreading, the oil is likely to penetrate the snow and potentially further into the ground.

Shorelines must be prioritised by evaluating the relative risk for those resources in a potential spill path. For example, many arctic regions have well
defined high-use habitat areas such as deltas and mammal haul-outs. Understanding the relative sensitivity of the shoreline, in terms of ecological,
social, cultural and economic importance, is fundamental to pre-spill planning and setting response priorities.

Protection Strategies and Response Operations

Protective strategies should be employed to prevent oil

OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

reaching the shoreline. This can include protective booming

that aims to deflect oil from the shoreline and/or sensitive
areas into containment zones to be mechanically recovered
or burned. Established strategies and techniques for shoreline
protection and cleaning such as booming, are generally
applicable in cold regions. The main differences in the
response surround the operational, safety and logistical issues EXCLUSION BOOMING CASCADE BOOMING
associated with remote areas and cold working environments. Protects sensitive sites including small Deflects oil away from shorelines to a point
These can include supporting personnel in remote locations, bays, inlets and harbour entrances. of enhanced natural collection for recovery.
establishing approved disposal sites for oily debris and
planning the working day around short days and seasons.

21
 Respond: Ice and Snow
Determining the most appropriate response method will be influenced by several factors. As much information as possible should be
gathered about the situation, the best response options can then be choosen for the area.
The behaviour of oil will be determined by a combination of the following factors:
Air Temperature
The air temperature will impact the melting of ice and snow as A I R T E M P E R AT U R E
well as influence the forming of new ice or snow.

Surface Type
Snow and ice have different characteristics. Consider the type
and stage of its life cycle; fresh or compacted, smooth or rough. SURFACE
OIL T Y P E
Environment Character TYPE
The environment type, such as land or water, below the ice or
snow, along with its topography will affect the oils behaviour.
ENVIRONMENT CHARACTER
Oil Type
Oils will act differently dependent on their nature.
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Ice and Oil Snow and Oil

Ice will take on a number of different stages and forms during its life; seasonal Snow is essentially a porous medium with the rate of oil retention being
ice will persist until the spring thaw whereas ice in arctic regions may not thaw at dependent on the properties of both the snow and the oil, however, due to its
all. See the Tools Section for Ice Characterisation Techniques. Due to the nature structure, it has capacity to hold large volumes of oil.
of the ice, oil can behave in different ways:
Oil trapped within ice in the winter typically emerges at the surface Oil causes snow to melt, with light oils moving quickly over larger areas and
during spring thaw, equally, oil can become encapsulated within ice as heavy oils spreading less.
the water freezes. Light oils can move in snow upslope due to its porous nature.
Ice can be a natural barrier for oil due to its impermeable nature.
Fresh falling snow tends to stick to the oil, increasing its volume.

22
 Respond: Containment of Oil on Ice and Snow
Berms, Dikes and Dams: Above the Surface
Dikes, Berms, and Dams have the objective of containing and limiting the spreading of oil, in addition to containing and accumulating the oil for
recovery. They can be constructed of available materials such as earth, gravel, or snow.
Contain and stabilise a contaminated area
Snow Berm
Contain or divert oil on water or oil that has potential to migrate
Use natural depressions to act as containment areas for recovery
Soil, gravel, snow, sandbags, oil boom, timbers, snow and ice can be used to construct berms
dams and dikes
The structure may include a method to regulate flow such as weir. Depending on the
permeability of the surface an impermeable lining can be used, or the structure can be
sprayed with water which will freeze, creating a film and stopping penetration
The construction of berms, dikes and dams can be very labour intensive
Pits, Trenches and Slots: Below the Surface
Pits, Trenches, and Slots have the objective of containing and aiding the recovery of the oil. This is done by excavating a depression or opening in a
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

down-slope/down-current location from the spill into which the oil will pool.
Contain or divert oil on water or oil that has potential to migrate
Ice Trench
Use natural topography and hydrology to move the oil to the collection point
Flushing can be utilized to aid collection
Ice blocks from the trench can be stacked next to it for added safety and containment
Prior to any excavation appropriate approvals should be obtained
Investigation of subsurface obstacles should be conducted prior to any work

An assessment of the ice must be conducted to ensure it can support responders and equipment.

23
 Respond: Containment of Oil Under Ice and Snow
Slots
Identifying Oil
Identifying oil under ice can be difficult, Slots can be used to assist in the containment of oil present under ice-covered waters. A slot is cut
lights can be used to carry out this through the ice to allow a void for the oil to accumulate. Slots should be configured depending on
process. Light tubes are placed through the operating environment, type of oil, the state of weathering, type of ice and equipment availablity.
drilled tunnels in the ice which locates The slot may be cut at an angle with plywood inserted to aid
the oil through casting its shadow. containment
The ice is marked out where the oil is
situated, ready for containment and Generally, a >0.5 knot current is required to move oil under the ice
recovery. cover. If the current is low, oil will collect in air pockets under the
ice. Slots can be cut above the air pocket

The flow direction of the oil should be anticipated and the slot cut
in intercept the flow

Insulating material should be placed next the slot to create a

pocket in the ice below allowing the oil to accumulate
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Bubbling Techniques
In ports and harbours, a compressor Compressor
can be used to clear a hole in the ice
enabling recovery of oil. This technique
circulates deep warmer water to the Ice Free Area
underside surface of the ice, melting it Cool Water
and gradually creating a hole that can
be used for recovery.

Warm Water

An assessment of the ice must be conducted to ensure it can support responders and equipment.

24
 Respond: Recovery of Oil from Ice and Snow
Dependent on the containment method, there are different options when recovering oil from ice and snow covered environments.
Skimmers Snow Blowers
Oleophilic, weir and Snow blowers are
mechanical skimmers used to collect lightly
can be used when oiled snow which is
recovering oil from pits, transferred to a trailer
slots or trenches. See on the back of a snow
the At Sea Containment machine.
and Recovery section
for more information on The oiled snow can be
skimmers. amassed first to aid
effective recovery by
the snow blower.

In-Situ Burning Mechanical Removal

OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Where pits are cut to Heavily oiled snow may

gather oil from under require mechanical
the ice, a natural recovery for removal
barrier is formed which and transfer to a
allows the controlled heated facility where
burning of oil. the oil and snow can
be separated.

25
 Respond: Wildlife Response
Wildlife response requires the knowledge and skills of experienced responders and handlers. With certain wildlife unique to cold
weather environments, it is essential to identify those species expected in the region across the various seasons in contingency plans, in
order to allow professional care and appropriate strategies to be put in place as quickly as possible to maximise the chance of survival.
Preventing Oiled Wildlife and Dangerous Encounters
Wherever possible, reconnaissance missions should be used to obtain information on wildlife
concentrations in the area. This data can be used to direct further prevention methods such as
hazing, or the direction of recovery teams where necessary. Hazing can help to protect animals from
entering oiled environments and humans from encountering potentially dangerous wildlife. Hazing
must be carried out by trained and experienced personnel after relevant permissions have been sort.
Hazing methods include but are not limited to:
Visual - floating/stationary figures Aircraft

Auditory - alarms Electrical fences

Understanding Impacts of Oil on Wildlife Operational Actions

Oil will affect species differently. For animals and birds that inhabit an oiled area, the spill may impact
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

DO NOT approach or handle wildlife.

their health if they come into contact with oil, but also impact on the availability of critical resources Recovery of oiled wildlife should be
such as food, water and shelter. The impact may also vary depending on the time of the year. For carried out by trained and experienced
example during the breeding or nesting season, the impact is likely to be far greater. professionals only.
External Effects Reproductive Effects Inform Incident Command of any animals
Fur/feather damage Abnormal behaviour sighted, a wildlife response plan, if in
Skin irritation Decreased fertility existence, can be initiated.
Hypothermia Embryo malformation/death
Decreased foraging Juvenile malformation/death If wildlife is sighted, keep records of
numbers, locations and species etc. to aid
Internal Effects Population Changes situation status. This can also provide vital
Organ damage Decreased abundance information for future assessment and
Gastrointestinal irritation Population shifts study, thus improve rehabilitation practices
Hematological changes Decreased genetic diversity and techniques for the future.

26
 Response: Waste Management
During an oil spill in an cold environment there are many streams of waste that have to be managed to ensure that operations can
continue and environmental impact is reduced.
The Waste Hierarchy Planning Waste Management
The waste hierarchy can be used to reduce the It is essential to develop a waste plan prior to an incident occurring.
Reduce
total amount of waste generated and therefore, A plan will:
Reuse
the environmental and economic impacts of waste Ensure transport/reception facilities are in place and
storage and disposal. During a response, materials Recycle approved
used such as PPE and equipment should follow the Recovery Ensure treatment processes are identified and approved
waste hierarchy to minimise waster generated.
Different strategies will create varying amounts Disposal
E nsure that an appropriate and effective waste stream is
and types of waste and it is important to plan for identified
this waste as early as possible.
Waste Stream
Handling and Handling and
Waste Collection Methods Generate Waste Transport Store Waste Transport Final Disposal
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Each response technique produces different levels of waste, which can include Considerations
PPE, equipment, sorbent materials, dead animal carcases, oil, water, snow, ice • Types • Availability • Availability
and gravel. Dependant on the levels of waste generated, different methods of • Volumes • Location • Location
collection will occur, whilst also taking into consideration the type of waste and • Rate of generation • Capacity • Capacity
• Minimisation • Legislative controls
rate of generation.
• Segregation
HIGH
Level of Waste Generation

Front End Loader

MODERATE Bulldozer
Backhoe Loader The waste stream will be different during the changing seasons
LOW Vacuum Systems
Dragline due to sometimes adverse and harsh conditions making logistics
Manual Removal Grader more challenging; planning will identify these differences.
Vegetation Cutter
Beach Cleaners Scraper

Collection Methods
27
 Respond: Selecting Response Techniques and Surveillance Methods
The environment in which oil is spilled will have a bearing on the effectiveness of different response techniques and surveillance
methods.
Oil on Water Surface: Open Water Oil on Water Surface: Mixed with Ice Oil Submerged: Under Broken Ice
Water is free from any ice The behaviour and fate of Oil is less likely to spread and
forms and will be subject oil in pack ice is influenced as it is not exposed to wind
to normal weathering by the concentration of ice and wave action.
processes cover.

Most response techniques and equipment Low concentrations of oil may allow standard Ice tends to reduce the spreading and
will be effective response techniques weathering of oil

In high concentrations, some response

techniques and equipment may not be
effective
Feasibility Feasibility Feasibility
High - Wave energy will encourage Medium - Ice can agitate the oil and Medium - Ice can agitate the oil and
Natural Recovery natural dispersion. Natural Recovery encourage dispersion Natural Recovery encourage dispersion

Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical

OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

High - Calm seas will provide ideal Low - Skimmers will need to deflect Low - Oil will need to break onto the
Recovery conditions for containment Recovery the ice Recovery surface to be recovered
Dispersant High - Wave energy will aid the Dispersant Medium- Dependent on percentage Dispersant Low - Dispersant will need to be
Application dispersion process Application of surface ice cover Application applied directly to the oil

Response Technique
Response Technique
Response Technique

In-Situ Burning High - Calm seas will provide ideal In-Situ Burning Medium - Varies according to slick In-Situ Burning Low - Oil will need to break onto the
conditions for containment thickness; thicker is more effective surface to be ignited
Airborne High - Oil should be visible on the Airborne Medium - Oil should be visibly Airborne Medium - Dependent on the skill of
Surveillance surface of the water Surveillance different from the ice and water Surveillance the observer in detecting oil

Remote Sensing High - Oil should be detectable on Remote Sensing Medium - Contrast between surface Remote Sensing Low - Oil is unlikely to be detected
the surface of the water types should be detectable under ice by sensors
Surface High - Oil should be visible/ Surface Medium - Dependent on whether Surface Medium - Dependent on whether
Surveillance detectable on the waters surface Surveillance access can be gained through ice Surveillance access can be gained through ice

Tracking High - Buoys could be used to track Tracking Low- Ice is likely to act as a barrier to Tracking Low- Ice is likely to act as a barrier to
the oil movement tracking devices tracking devices

28
 Respond: Selecting Response Techniques and Surveillance Methods

Oil Beneath Ice Oil on Ice Oil in Ice: Encapsulated Oil

Oil is less likely to spread as Oil is exposed to wind Oil is less likely to spread and
it is not exposed to wind and and ice action, and will as it is not exposed to wind
wave action. The movement spread according to ice floe and wave action.
will depend on currents. direction
Snow and ice tend to reduce the spreading Weathering processes are reduced or even
Weathering processes tend to be reduced and weathering in comparison to open water stopped

Oil may be inaccessable and difficult to detect A number of factors can affect how the oil The oil may be inaccessable and difficult to
behaves such as oil type and ice condition locate

Feasibility Feasibility Feasibility

Low - Underwater currents may Medium - Oil is exposed to Medium - Underwater currents may
Natural Recovery encourage dispersion Natural Recovery weathering processes Natural Recovery encourage dispersion

Mechanical Low - Oil will need to break into the Mechanical High - Mechanical skimmers can be Mechanical Low - Oil will need to break onto the
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Recovery surface to be recovered Recovery used in large pools Recovery surface to be recovered
Dispersant Low - Dispersant will need to be Dispersant High - Oil can be contained and Dispersant Low - Dispersant will need to be
Application applied directly to the oil Application directly targeted with dispersant Application applied directly to the oil

Response Technique
Response Technique
Response Technique

In-Situ Burning Low - Oil will need to break onto the In-Situ Burning High - Oil can be contained into In-Situ Burning Low - Oil will need to break onto the
surface to be ignited pools and ignited surface to be ignited
Airborne Low- Dependant on the thickness of Airborne High - Contrast between oil and ice Airborne Low- Dependant on the thickness of
Surveillance ice and skill of the observer Surveillance will be visible to observers Surveillance ice and skill of the observer

Remote Sensing Low - Oil is unlikely to be detectable Remote Sensing High - Contrast between oil and ice Remote Sensing Low - Oil is unlikely to be detectable
by sensors under the ice will be detected by sensors by sensors under the ice
Surface Low - Dependant on thickness of ice Surface High - Dogs have been proven Surface Low - Dependant on thickness of ice
Surveillance and access to the area Surveillance effective in detecting oil on ice Surveillance and access to the area

Tracking Low - Tracking will not work under a Tracking Not applicable Tracking Low - Tracking will not work under a
mass of ice mass of ice

29
 Record and Report: Documentation
Recording and reporting is an essential tool to be used throughout the response process. Completing accurate documentation aids the
communication to internal and external parties of relevant information.

Before Operations During Operations After Operations

Reports are a vital part of the planning process Each response strategy requires its own form of Any records should be duplicated, and paper
for operations. By gathering all the relevant recording that allows responders and managers forms should be transferred into electronic
information about the spill, an initial report to primarily assess the impact of the spill and copies. All documentation produced during
can provide the background for the Incident monitor the response operations (including a response should be retained for at least
Management Team to determine and prioritise ongoing health and safety conditions, such as five years. Reports are often used to provide
the most appropriate response strategy. personal gas monitoring). The progress of the evidential support during the close-out of the
response will also be recorded and logged, response, for example when claims are made
Prior to operations, checklists and protocol such as dispersant runs or area of oil burned, for compensation.
forms can be used by Responders as effective to measure the impact and efficacy of different
reminders to ensure both health and safety are response techniques.
considered and that sufficient resources are
present and fit for purpose. Individual logs are a vital resources for
responders, especially when handing over
responsibilities to others activated for the next
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

operational period.

Daily reports are an important communication

tool during a response. They allow the Incident
Management Team to understand what has
occurred previously and to update important
details about progress that can be integrated
into the Common Operating Picture.

By using a standardised database of forms with appropriate instructions about use, reporting can be made more efficient. It will also ensure that all
necessary information is collected in a format that it easy to read and analyse. Both paper and electronic copies of forms should be used in a response.

30
 Tools: Ice Characterisation Techniques
Observing Ice
Ice is constantly moving and changing. Observers should report sea ice conditions with reference to the date, time, geographical position of the
observation and the particular perspective, or field of view; i.e from the bridge of a ship or the shoreline.

Ice Forms Only trained personnel should characterise ice

In very cold regions, there are four basic ice forms that significantly affect the spread and
transport of oil as well as any attempts to clean-up oil and minimise the impacts.
Ice Characterisation Method
Sea Ice Glacier Ice
Frozen sea water which may be difficult to Ice that has broken away from a tidewater CONCENTRATION
distinguish from river (freshwater) ice when glacier. Usually more irregular than river or sea Concentration refers to the fraction of the sea
mixed with sea ice and/or snow cover. ice.
surface covered by ice, reported in tenths by
international convention.
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage of development refers to age and structural
characteristics of the ice that may be inferred
Lake Ice River Ice from specific visible features and knowledge of
Ice formed on a lake, regardless of observed Ice formed on a river, regardless of observed regional conditions prior to the observation.
location. location.

FORM
Form refers to the horizontal shape and
dimensions of pieces of ice. The form of glacier
ice is also reported in terms of freeboard, or
maximum height above the sea surface.

31
 Tools: Ice Concentration

Open Very Close

Very Open Drift Open Drift Close Pack
Water Pack

<1% 10% 20% 30% 40% 60% 70% 80% 90%

OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

32
 Tools: Stages of Sea Ice Development

N Ni YN FL

New Nilas Young First-Year Thin

Ice of the following initial stages A thin, elastic crust of ice, less Ice 10 - 30 cm thick of the
than 10 cm thick, easily bending Sea ice 30 - 70 cm thick
of ice formation: frazil, grease, sub-stages grey and grey-white
slush and shuga on waves, often with a striped or in appearance
chevron appearance
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

FM FT MY

First-Year Medium First-Year Thick Old or Multi-Year

Sea ice of any thickness; survived
Sea ice 70 - 120 cm thick Sea ice over 120 cm thick at least one melting season,
characterised by undulating,
weathered ridges and well-defined
melt water drainage pattern

33
 Tools: Sea Ice Forms

Small, thin, newly formed, Level, continuous piece 500

New dinner plate-sized pieces Big Floe m - 2 km (1/3 - 1 mi) across

Broken pieces less than 2 m Level, continuous piece 2 -

Brash (6 ft) across Vast Floe 10 km (1 - 6 mi) across

Rounded 0.3 - 3 m (1 - 10 ft) Level continuous piece

Pancake across with ridged rims Giant Floe greater than 10 km (6 mi)
across

Level piece 3 - 20 m (6 - 65 ft) A linear accumulation of sea

Ice Cake across Belt Ice ice from 1 km to over 100 km
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

(0.6 - 60 mi) wide

Level piece 20 - 100 m (65 - A linear accumulation of sea

Small Floe 328 ft) across Strip Ice ice less than 1 km (0.6 mi)
wide

Strip Irregular, sediment-laden

Medium Floe Level, continuous piece 100 blocks that are grounded on
-500 m (328 - 1640 ft) across Beach Ice tidelands

Fast Ice Ice formed and remaining

34 attached to shore
 Tools: Wind Chill Effect
Wind chill is the apparent temperature felt on exposed skin caused by the combined effects of temperature and wind speed.
Air Temperature (C) Frostbite
5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 Frostbite is damage to skin and tissue caused by
exposure to freezing conditions. Extremities of the
body are most susceptible. Symptoms include a loss of
10 3 -3 -9 -15 -21 -27 -33 -39 -45 -51 -57 -63
feeling in the extremity as it freezes and a white pale
appearance.
20 1 -5 -12 -18 -24 -30 -37 -43 -49 -56 -62 -68
Hypothermia
30 0 -6 -13 -20 -26 -33 -39 -46 -52 -59 -65 -72
Hypothermia happens when the body’s core
Wind Speed (Kph)

temperature becomes abnormally low. Early warning

40 -1 -7 -14 -21 -27 -34 -41 -48 -54 -61 -68 -74 signs of mild hypothermia (temp. 35 - 32oC/95 - 89 oF)
include constant shivering, low energy, tiredness and
50 -1 -8 -15 -22 -29 -35 -42 -49 -56 -63 -69 -76 hyperventilation. If the hypothermia becomes worse
(temp. below 32oC/89 oF) symptoms include confusion,
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

60 -2 -9 -16 -23 -30 -36 -43 -50 -57 -64 -71 -78 poor judgment, disorientation, drowsiness and
apparent exhaustion, shivering is unlikely to be present
70 -2 -9 -16 -23 -30 -37 -44 -51 -58 -65 -72 -80 at this stage.
Prevention
80 -3 -10 -17 -24 -31 -38 -45 -52 -60 -67 -74 -81
Adequate and appropriate PPE must be worn, with all
Increasing danger, risk of hyperthermia and frost bite areas of the body protected. Work should be paced to
As apparent temperature drops, work shifts will decrease and warm up breaks will increase avoid excess sweating and proper rest periods enforced;
putting in place a work schedule will help. Heated rest
Whilst this table provides some information on wind chill, it does not replace the shelters should be provided and monitoring of the
need for adequate training, correct equipment and a full site specific risk assessment. physical condition of personnel should be conducted.
Remember, everyone is different.

35
 Tools: Cold Weather Shoreline types
Tundra Cliffs: ESI 3C Peat Shorelines: ESI 8E Inundated Low-Lying Tundra: ESI 10D
These are erosional features with tundra This shoreline type includes exposed peat scarps, This shoreline type occurs where very low-lying
vegetation overlying peat and exposed ground eroded peat, and slurries of rafted peats. sections of the shoreline have been recently
Key Characteristics

ice or permafrost. flooded by the sea due to subsidence and areas

These are typically erosional coastlines, resulting
that are not normally in the intertidal zone but
The vegetation on the tundra is a living plant from wave action, ice scour, and melting of the
can be frequently inundated by salt water during
community that is sensitive to disturbances. frozen peat.
springtides or surges.
Large numbers of migratory birds can use these The intertidal zone is often very complex, with
The tundra is a living plant community and
shorelines during the summer months. slumped peat blocks, fine to medium-grained
provides important feeding areas for migrating
sands, and peat slurries intermixed.
birds in the summer.
Example
OSRL - Cold Weather Response Field Guide

Oil could be stranded onshore only during the Oil could be stranded onshore only during the Oil could be stranded onshore only during the
ice-free summer season. ice-free summer season. ice-free summer months.
Oil persistence on the in situ vegetation and peat Oil penetration and persistence are expected to During storm surges, spilled oil could become
substrates would be short in most cases, due to be very low in frozen peat scarps. stranded hundreds of meters inland.
Oil Behaviour

the natural cliff erosion, provided that oil is not Light oil can penetrate peat slurries, resulting in During the summer months, the surface
stranded at the onset of freeze-up. persistent sheens. sediments/peat deposits are usually water
If the oil mixes with accumulations of peat blocks Heavy oil does not penetrate peats, even when saturated, so stranded oil is likely to remain on
at the base of the cliff, sheens may persist until the peat is dry. the surface.
the peat is reworked by wave energy. Peat slurries react to oil like loose granular Physical removal rates of medium to heavy oils
sorbent and will partially contain and prevent the will be slow.
oil from spreading.

36
 Metric
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

CONVERSION TABLE
VOLUME SPEED
1 US Oil Barrel 42 US Gallons 159 Litres 1 Knot 1.85 km/Hour 0.51 Metres/Second
1 US Oil Barrel 35 Gallons (Imp) 1 Metre/Second 3.6 km/Hour 1.94 Knots
1 Gallon (Imp) 1.2 US Gallons 4.546 Litres MASS
1 US Gallon 0.833 Gallons (Imp) 3.785 Litres 1 Metric Tonne 1000 Kilogrammes 0.984 Tons
1 Cubic Metre 1000 Litres 6.29 US Oil Barrels 1 Ton (Imp) 20 Hundredweight 1016.05 Tonnes
1 Litre 0.26 US Gallons 0.03531 Cubic Feet 1 Hundredweight 50.8 Kilograms 112 lbs
1 Cubic Yard 0.765 Cubic Metres 1 Kilogramme 2.205 lbs 1 Litre of Water
1 Cubic Foot 0.0283 Cubic Metres 1 Gramme 0.025 ounces
1 Cubic Decimetre 0.001 Cubic Metres 1 Litre FLOW
1 Met Tonne 7.33 US Oil Barrels 257 Gallons (Imp) 1 Cubic Metre/Hour 16.7 Litres/Minute 3.671 Gallons (Imp) /Minute
AREA 1 Litre/Second 2.119 Cubic Feet/Minute 13.21 Gallons (Imp)/Minute
1 Acre 0.405 Hectares 4050 Square Metres 1 Cubic Foot/Minute 0.1039 Gallons (Imp)/Second 0.472 Litres/Second
1 Hectare 10,000 Square Metres 2.471 Acres 1 US Gallon/Minute 0.0631 Litres/Second
1 Square Kilometre 100 Hectares 247 Acres 1 Gallon (Imp)/Minute 0.0767 Litres/Second 0.5825 Gallons (Imp)/Minute
1 Square Metre 1.196 Square Yards 1 Barrel/Hour 2.65 Litres/Minute
1 Square Yard 0.836 Square Metres 9 Square Feet 1 US Gallon/Acre 9.354 Litres/Hectare
1 Square Foot 0.093 Square Metres 1 Gallon (Imp)/Acre 11.224 Litres/Hectare
1 Square Mile 2.59 Square Kilometres 640 Acres PRESSURE
LENGTH/DISTANCE 1 Psi 0.069 Bar 6901 Pascal
1 Kilometre 0.54 Nautical Miles 0.622 Miles 1 Bar 100,000 Pascal 14.49 Psi
1 Nautical Mile 1.852 Kilometres 1.151 Miles 1 Bar 30 Feet of Water
1 Mile 1.609 Kilometres 1760 Yards ENGINE POWER
1 Metre 1.094 Yards 3.282 Feet 1 Horsepower 0.7457 Kilowatts
1 Yard 0.914 Metres TEMPERATURE
F to C - dedu c t 3 2 , mu ltiply by 5 , div ide 9 . C to F - mu litply 9 , div ide 5 , a dd 3 2
1 Foot 0.305 Metres
Celcius 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1 Inch 25.4 Millimetres
Farenheit 32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158 176 194 212

Inches 1 2 3 4 5

OSRL FIELD GUIDE: Cold Weather Response