FOSMA NOTES ON CELESTIAL NAVIGATION

CELESTIAL SPHERE AND EQUINOCTIAL SYSTEM OF

COORDINATES
Structure
1. Introduction Objectives
2. Celestial Sphere and References
3. Apparent Annual Motion of the Sun and the Concept of the
Ecliptic and the ‘Obliquity of the Ecliptic’
4. The Equinoctial System of Coordinates
4.1 Reference Great Circles –
➢ Equinoctial,
➢ Celestial Meridians of Greenwich and
➢ Celestial Meridian of the First Point of Aries
4.2 Coordinates –
➢ Declination,
➢ Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA),
➢ Local Hour Angle (LHA),
➢ Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)
➢ Right Ascension
5. Relationship between GHA, LHA and Longitude
6. The Concept of the Earth’s Axial Rotation Causing Change in
the Hour Angle of Bodies
7. Summary
8. Key Words
9. Answers to DPP Questions

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1. INTRODUCTION
In order to use celestial bodies (the Sun, Planets, Moon, and stars) for position
fixing it is required that we know their position in the sky.
The position of a celestial body is defined on the celestial sphere by using
different coordinate systems based on their purpose.
The coordinate systems used are
➢ Equinoctial system,
➢ Horizon system and
➢ Ecliptic system.
In this section we will discuss the equinoctial coordinate system of defining
position of the body in the sky, which is used in the Nautical Almanac.

Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to define
➢ the Celestial Sphere,
➢ Celestial Poles,
➢ Celestial Meridians,
➢ Equinoctial,
➢ Declination Circles,

• Should be able to explain the apparent annual motion of the sun and the
concept of the ecliptic and the ‘obliquity of the ecliptic’,
• Able to explain the equinoctial as a fixed reference plane and the
direction of the First Point of Aries as a reference direction (ignoring the
effect of precession),
• Able to describe the equinoctial system of co-ordinates,
• Able to define following important terms of Celestial Navigation

➢ ‘Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)’,

➢ ‘Local Hour Angle (LHA)’ and longitude, and explain their
relationship,
➢ Sidereal Hour Angle,
➢ Declination, and
➢ Right Ascension, and
• Able to describe the concept of the earth’s axial rotation causing change
in the hour angle of bodies.

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CELESTIAL SPHERE AND REFERENCES

In celestial navigation, the earth

is assumed to be a perfect
sphere, located at the center of
the universe.
At night when we look at the
sky we see all heavenly bodies
located on a hemispherical
dome called the celestial
sphere.
The earth is assumed to be
stationary due to which all
celestial bodies appear to move
on the celestial sphere. The grid for pin pointing position of a celestial
body may be imagined to be created by projecting the earth’s grid on the
celestial sphere with light source at the center of the earth

2.1 Definitions

Celestial Sphere
It is a sphere of immense radius whose centre is same as centre of the earth. It is
the sphere on which all celestial bodies appear to lie. As calculations in celestial
navigation are based on angular measurements, the radius of the earth is
irrelevant. It can be also defined as sphere of infinite radius concentric with the
earth.

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Celestial Poles
The earth’s poles extended to meet the celestial sphere are called celestial
poles (North Celestial Pole (NCP) and South Celestial Pole). They can also be
defined as outward projection of the earth’s poles on the celestial sphere.(See
the figure)
Equinoctial or Celestial Equator
Equinoctial is a great circle on the celestial sphere whose plane is same as plane
of the earth’s equator. It can be also defined as projection of the equator on the
celestial sphere. .(See the figure)
Celestial Meridians
The semi-great circles on the celestial sphere joining the celestial poles or
projection of the earth’s meridians on the celestial sphere. Celestial meridians
cut the equinoctial and the declination circles at 90º. .(See the figure)
Declination Circles / Parallels of Declination
These are small circles on the celestial sphere parallel to the plane of
equinoctial. Declination circles may also be defined as projection of parallels of
latitude on the celestial sphere.
3 ANNUAL APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN
The solar system consists of the Sun, the
planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and
Pluto), the planetary satellites (moons),
asteroids, comets and meteors. The most
important member of the Solar system is
the Sun. All the planets revolve
eastward in elliptical orbits around the
sun.
The earth also rotates eastward on its
axis. For the purposes of celestial
navigation the earth is assumed to be
stationary. Therefore due to eastward
revolution of the Earth, the Sun appears
to move eastwards on the celestial
sphere, in the plane of the Earth’s orbit.

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The projection of the Sun on the ecliptic from successive positions of the earth
in its orbit, appears to constantly move eastwards.

Obliquity of the Ecliptic

The earth’s axis is inclined to its orbiting plane by about 23° 26.7′. Therefore
the equinoctial also makes the same angle with the plane of ecliptic. The angle
at which the plane of ecliptic cuts the equinoctial plane is called Obliquity of
Ecliptic.
First Point of Aries (γ )
The ecliptic intersects the equinoctial at two points called the equinoctial
points.
The equinoctial point when the Sun
appears to cross the Equinoctial from
South to North is called First Point
of Aries and is denoted by symbol γ.
This occurrence takes place on 21st
March, at Vernal Equinox.
The First Point of Aries is
considered as fixed point on the
celestial sphere (ignoring precession
of equinoxes will be discussed in later
units).

First Point of Libra (Ώ)

The equinoctial point when the Sun appears to cross the Equinoctial from
North to South is called first point of Libra, and is denoted by the symbol
Ώ.
The First point of Aries and the First point of Libra were named after the
constellations in which they once lay. These points are however moving
westward slowly, along the Ecliptic.
Due to this, the 1st point of Aries is no longer in the constellation of Aries. It is
now in the constellation of Pisces.

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4. THE EQUINOCTIAL SYSTEM OF CO-ORDINATES

The coordinates used to define the position of a celestial body on the celestial
sphere in the equinoctial system are Declination and Greenwich Hour Angle.
This system of coordinates is used in Nautical Almanac to define the position
of celestial body at any instant of the year. For determining these coordinates
reference used are as follows.

4.1 The Reference Great Circles Used in the Equinoctial System

Equinoctial
Equinoctial is the great circle on the celestial sphere which is equidistant from
the celestial poles or whose plane is same as the plane of equator. This is the
reference plane from which declination of astronomical bodies is measured
north or south.
Celestial Meridian Passing of Greenwich
It is the celestial meridian that passes through Greenwich.
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) of all celestial bodies is measured westward
from this reference great circle.
Celestial Meridian of First Point of Aries
It is the celestial meridian that passes through first point of Aries.
Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) of all celestial bodies is measured with reference
to this great circle.
4.2 The Coordinates in the Equinoctial System
Declination
It is the arc of celestial meridian passing through the body contained between
the Equinoctial and the body.
It may be also defined as arc of celestial meridian or the angle at the centre of
the earth contained between the Equinoctial and the declination circle passing
through the body.
If the body is North of the equinoctial the declination is North and
If the body is South of the equinoctial declination is named South.

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As it is angular measure it is expressed in degrees and minutes and its value is

in between 0º to 90º N or S.
Hour Angle (HA)
Hour Angle is arc of the Equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained
between two celestial meridians.
Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA)
GHA of a celestial body is the arc of
the Equinoctial or the angle at the
celestial poles contained between the
celestial meridian of Greenwich and
celestial meridian passing through the
body, measured westward from
celestial meridian of Greenwich. It is
expressed in degrees and minutes and
its value is in between 0º to 360º.
Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA)
SHA of a celestial body is an hour angle the
arc of the Equinoctial or the angle at the
celestial pole contained between the celestial
meridian of the First point of Aries and that
through the body, measured westward from
Aries.
Right Ascension (RA)
RA of a celestial body is an hour angle
contained between the celestial meridian
of the First point of Aries and the
celestial meridian passing through the
body, measured eastward from Aries.
RA is generally expressed in hours,
minutes and seconds, instead of, in arc.
Since SHA is measured westward and
RA eastwards from the same point, the
SHA and RA of any body will together
always add up to 360°.
SHA* + RA* = 360°
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Local Hour Angle (LHA)

LHA of a celestial body is an hour angle
contained between the observer’s celestial
meridian and the celestial meridian through
that body, measured westward from the
observer.
If the angle or arc is measured eastward
from the observer, it is known as the
Easterly Hour Angle (EHA) and not
LHA.
LHA* + EHA* = 360º

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GHA, LHA, AND LONGITUDE

As we know the longitude is measured East or West with reference to
Greenwich meridian hence the GHA and LHA of a celestial body are also
related.
The relationship can be easily
understood and shown on the plane of
Equinoctial that is projecting the
celestial meridians on the plane of
Equinoctial from the celestial pole.
In this projection the celestial
meridians will appear as radial lines and the centre of the equinoctial circle is
celestial pole.
Looking from North celestial pole West-ward angles and arcs are measured
clockwise.
Eastward angles and arcs are measured counter-clockwise.
The angle at the Pole, between any two meridians is equal to the corresponding
arc on the Equinoctial.
LHA* = ∠ WPX = ∠ GPX − ∠ GPW = GHA* − Long. (West)
LHA* = GHA* − Long. (West)
GHA* = LHA* + Long. (West) (Longitude West GHA BEST)
LHA* = ∠ EPX = ∠ GPX + ∠ GPE = GHA* + Long. (East)
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LHA* = GHA* + Long. (East)

GHA* = LHA* − Long. (East) (Longitude East GHA LEAST)
Example 1 Calculate the LHA of a star whose GHA is 70°, for an observer
in longitude 147°E.
Solution :
Longitude East GHA Least
LHA* = GHA* + Long (E) = 70° + 147° = 217°
LHA* = 217° (Ans)
Example.2 Calculate the GHA of Sun which is on the meridian for an
observer in longitude 97°W.
Solution
When meridian of the observer is also the celestial meridian of the body
then :
LHA Sun = 000° Longitude is West ∴ GHA is Best
LHA Sun = GHA Sun − Long (W)
0° = GHA Sun − 97° ; GHA Sun = 0° + 97°; GHA Sun = 97° (Ans)
The above questions can also be solved with the help of drawing the
diagram on the plane of the equinoctial.
DPP Questions
Q 1 (a) What is equivalent coordinate for declination in geographical
system of defining position on the surface of the Earth?
(b) What is the obliquity of the ecliptic?
(c) To an observer the Sun’s LHA was 342°, when its GHA was 35°. Find
the longitude of the observer.
(d) For an observer in DR 20º 12′S 164º 44′E, the EHA of Moon was 71º.
Find GHA of the Moon.
(e) Calculate LHA γ, when GHA was 49° and the longitude of the observer
is 119°20′W.

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CHANGE IN HOUR ANGLE OF BODIES DUE TO

ROTATION OF THE EARTH
The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East i.e. counter clockwise as viewed
from above the North Pole, at the rate of 15º 2.46′ per hour that is completing
one rotation in 23 hours 56 minutes 04.1 seconds.
Due to the rotation of the Earth the entire celestial sphere appears to rotate in
the opposite direction, i.e. from East to West completing an apparent rotation of
360° in about 24 hours.
Due to rotation of the Earth the meridian of Greenwich also rotates and so does
the celestial meridian of Greenwich.
Since GHAs of all celestial bodies are measured westward from the celestial
meridian of Greenwich therefore the GHAs of all celestial bodies increase by
15° 2.46′ per hour due to rotation of the Earth.
The GHA of celestial bodies change due to the following reasons :
➢ Rotation of the Earth
➢ Revolution of the Earth
➢ Movement of the Celestial bodies, e.g. Revolution of planets and the
Moon
The GHA of stars changes only due to rotation of the Earth, the stars being
at immense distance revolution of the Earth doesn’t register any angle at the
stars and stars motion with respect to Sun or other stars is very slow, e.g. abt 3.7
seconds per year of Arcturus.
The GHA of stars and first point of Aries γ increases by 15° 2.46′ per hour.
GHA* after 1 hour increases due to Eastward Motion of the Celestial Meridian
of Greenwich due to Rotation of the Earth
The GHA of Sun changes due to rotation of the Earth and revolution of the
Earth and it increases by about 15° per hour.
The GHA of planets and the Moon changes due to rotation of the Earth,
revolution of the Earth and their own motion.

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SUMMARY
➢ If the geographical coordinates and reference circles are expanded to
meet the celestial sphere we have the grid, references and coordinates of
the equinoctial system.
➢ The similarity can be drawn from the table below :
Geographical Coordinate System Equinoctial Coordinate System
Sphere Earth Celestial Sphere
Grid Meridians Celestial Meridians
Parallels of Latitude Parallels of Declination
References Equator Equinoctial
Meridian of Greenwich Celestial Meridian of Greenwich
Coordinates Latitude Declination
Longitude Greenwich Hour Angle

➢ The equinoctial system is used in Nautical Almanacs for defining the

position of heavenly bodies used for navigation purpose at any given
Greenwich Mean Time.
➢ The relationship between GHA and Longitude is given by :
LHA* = GHA* + Long (E) and LHA* = GHA* − Long (W)

➢ The above can be easily remembered by : “Longitude East GHA

Least” and “Longitude West GHA Best”

➢ The annual apparent path of the Sun on the celestial Sphere is called
Ecliptic.

➢ The Equinoctial cuts the Ecliptic at an angle of about 23º 30′ at two
points called equinoctial points namely First Point of Aries and
First Point of Libra.

➢ The point when the Sun appears to cross the Equinoctial from North
to South is called First Point of Aries and is reference point for
measuring SHA.

➢ The GHAs of celestial bodies’ increases by about 15º due to rotation

of the Earth.

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8. KEY WORDS
Celestial Sphere : A sphere of infinite radius whose centre is the Earth’s
Centre.
Equinoctial : A great circle on every point on which is 90º from the celestial
poles.
Greenwich Hour Angle : An hour angle contained between celestial meridian
of Greenwich and celestial meridian of the body measured westward.
Sidereal Hour Angle : An hour angle
contained between celestial meridian of γ
and celestial meridian of the body
measured westward.
Local Hour Angle : An hour angle
contained between celestial meridian of
the observer and celestial meridian of the
body measured westward.
Right Ascension : An hour angle
contained between celestial meridian of γ
and celestial meridian of the body
measured eastward.
Easterly Hour Angle : An hour angle contained between celestial meridian of
the observer and celestial meridian of the body measured eastward.
Declination: It is arc of celestial meridian passing through the body contained
between equinoctial and the body.

ANSWERS TO DPP Questions

1 (a) Latitude (b) It is the angle between the plane of Equinoctial and
Ecliptic and is about 23º 26.7′. (c) 04 h 35 m 00 s (d) 53º W (e) 124º 16′E

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Altitude & Azimuth: The Horizontal Coordinate System

The horizontal coordinate system, also known as the Alt/Az system, is

a method for describing the exact position of objects in the sky, such
as planets, the Sun, or the Moon.

Based on two coordinates, altitude and azimuth, the horizontal

coordinate system provides the general direction in which to find a
celestial object. Although the distance of the visible planets, stars, and
galaxies differs by billions of light years, the system ignores the depth
of space as an object's distance is irrelevant for the purpose of
locating it in the sky.
The Celestial Sphere
Imagine the sky as a dome towering above you, its edges resting on
the horizon. This is the backdrop the horizontal coordinate system
uses to map the sky and describe the positions of its objects. To
compare, the geographic coordinate system uses the Earth's surface as
a backdrop to determine a position.
In effect, the system also includes the invisible half of the sky that is below the
horizon. The dome above you is called the upper hemisphere and the invisible
part of the sky below you is the lower hemisphere. Together, they form
the celestial sphere, an imaginary globe surrounding you, with you at its center.

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Astronomical terms & definitions

The Celestial Horizon
The horizontal line separating the two hemispheres is called the celestial
horizon. It is a continuation into space of the imaginary plane created between
you and the horizon around you. If the Earth were flat, the celestial horizon
would follow the terrestrial plane. However, since we are living on a globe, it is
defined as the imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the
observer's location.

Illustration 2: The altitude is the angle an object makes with the horizon.

Altitude and Azimuth

Just as the geographic coordinate system uses latitude and longitude to define
any location on Earth, the horizontal coordinate system provides altitude and
azimuth angles to locate objects in the sky.

Altitude or elevation:
The angle the object makes with the horizon.
Objects that seem to touch the horizon have an altitude of 0°, while those
straight above you are at 90° (see illustration 2). Anything below the horizon
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has a negative angle, with -90° describing a location straight down. In this and other
celestial coordinate systems, the location straight above you is
called zenith while the point exactly below you is referred to as nadir.
Azimuth:
The object's cardinal direction, such as north, east, south, or west. It is specified
as the horizontal angle the object makes with a reference direction, such as true
north (see illustration 3). Imagine a vertical line connecting the object with the
horizon.
The azimuth is the angle between the spot where that line crosses the horizon
and the reference direction. If true north is used as reference, it is represented by
an azimuth of 0°, and angle values increase towards the east. This means, for
example, that an azimuth of 180° means due south.

Illustration 3: The azimuth refers to the object's cardinal direction.

Example: If Venus is at an altitude of 45°, with an azimuth of 270°, as seen

from your location, this means that you will find the planet in a western
direction at an elevation exactly half way between the horizon and the zenith.

Note: Since true north is the reference direction most commonly used, all
azimuths displayed on timeanddate.com refer to true north. However, some
astronomical conventions still follow the traditional method of using true south as a
starting point for azimuth angles.

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Depends on Location and Time

The horizontal coordinate system owes its name to the fact that it is based upon
the observer's horizon. As the horizon's limits – and, therefore, the portion of
the sky you see – depends on your location, an object's altitude and azimuth
angles shift as you move to a different spot on the Earth's surface. What's more,
most celestial objects move across the sky, so their coordinates change as time
goes by, even if you stay put.

This means that the angles provided by the horizontal coordinate system apply
only to a specific location at a specific time.

Doesn't Work at the Poles

While the horizontal coordinate system provides an easy way to define a
location in the sky at almost any location on Earth, it is not possible to define an
azimuth at the North Pole or the South Pole, rendering the system useless there.

At the North Pole, for example, it is easy to find the Polaris, the North Star. It is
very close to the zenith position, so you have to look straight up to see it.
However, you will not be able to describe the location of any other star using an
azimuth angle because all of them are south of Polaris.

INTRODUCTION
On a clear night while gazing the stars you notice a pattern of stars. How will
you convey the position of the pattern to your friend in your neighbourhood.
Most likely you will convey the position by approximate altitude and direction.
In celestial navigation the similar system of coordinates is used to define the
position of an astronomical body on the celestial sphere. It is literally based on
the observer's view of the sky. The observer uses coordinates altitude and
azimuth to pin-point the position of an astronomical body.
This system of coordinate is called the horizon system of coordinates.

In this chapter, we shall define

➢ the coordinates and the reference planes,
➢ great circles used for measuring the coordinates.

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Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to define
➢ Rational Horizon,
➢ Zenith,
➢ Nadir,
➢ Vertical Circle,
➢ Prime vertical circle,
➢ Elevated pole and
➢ Depressed pole,
➢ True Altitude
➢ True Zenith Distance
➢ Azimuth and Amplitude
Able to prove that the altitude of the elevated pole is equal to the
observer’s latitude,
• Should be able to define
➢ the observer’s upper and lower celestial meridian, •
➢ identify the apparent daily path of all bodies, •
➢ Explain the relationship between azimuth, quadrantal bearings and
360º notation bearing,
➢ Recognise rising and setting points and defines amplitude,
➢ Recognise the parts of the PZX triangle, and draw figures on the
plane of the Rational Horizon.
DAILY MOTION AND HORIZON SYSTEM OF COORDINATES
DEFINITIONS
The Horizon System
The Horizon system is based on the position of the observer and the coordinates
are measured with reference to his meridian and plane.

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Zenith
It is a point vertically above the observer or a line
joining from the center of the Earth through the
observer to the celestial sphere is called the
observer’s Zenith. Point Z in Figure.

Nadir
It is a point vertically below him or a point vertically
opposite of Zenith on the celestial sphere.
Rational Horizon (NES)
Rational horizon is a great circle on
the celestial sphere the pole of which is
the Observer’s zenith or the great
circle every point on which is 90°
away from the observer’s zenith.
The celestial horizon is always
perpendicular to the navigator.
Vertical Circle
It is a great circle on
the celestial sphere
passing through the
observer’s zenith and
Nadir.
Prime Vertical Circle
(WZE)
It is the vertical circle
passing through East &
West points of
observer’s rational
horizon. This great
circle is reference used for defining amplitude of a body.
Principal Vertical Circle (NZS)
It is the vertical circle passing through North & South points of observer’s
rational horizon. This great circle is reference used for defining azimuth of a
body.
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Elevated and Depressed Pole

In the rational horizon system the observer is always perpendicular to the
rational horizon and as the observer moves North or south along the meridian
the celestial sphere visible to him changes.
When the observer is at the Equator his zenith is on the equinoctial and the
North and south celestial poles are on his rational horizon.
As the observer moves North from the Equator, the north celestial poles get
elevated above his rational horizon equal to the Latitude and the south celestial
pole gets depressed below his rational horizon.
In such condition the North Celestial Pole (NCP) is referred to as the
Elevated Pole and the South Celestial Pole (SCP) as the Depressed Pole.

Arc NZ = 90º (Z is observer’s Zenith and N is a point on his rational horizon)

Arc NP + Arc PZ = 90º
Arc PQ = 90º (P is celestial pole and Q is a point on the equinoctial)
Arc PZ + Arc ZQ = 90º
Arc NZ + Arc PZ = Arc PZ+ Arc ZQ
Arc NZ (Elevation of the Celestial Pole) = Arc ZQ (Latitude of the Observer)
∴ Elevation of the Celestial Pole = Latitude of the Observer
When the observer moves south the south celestial pole gets elevated and north
celestial pole is depressed below his rational horizon.

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DRAWING FIGURES ON THE PLANE OF THE RATIONAL HORIZON

The celestial bodies visible to the observer at any given time can be also
represented on the plane of the observer’s rational horizon.
The depiction on the plane of Rational horizon can be visualised as projection
of the bodies on the rational horizon plane from a light source at infinity.
Daily Motion and Horizon System of Coordinates
Observer’s Rational Horizon (NESW), the outer circle represents the observer’s
rational horizon.
Z is the observer’s zenith,
NPZQS the principal vertical,
WZE, the observer’s prime vertical,
PZS, the observer’s celestial
WQE represents the Equinoctial,
dd′ the declination circle of the body and
P the elevated celestial pole
To draw the diagram to scale it would be convenient to draw the circle of radius
of 9 units to represent 90°, between Z and the rational horizon.
➢ Q is marked to the South or North of the zenith, according to the
observer’s latitude (If latitude is North Q is depressed southward and if
latitude is south Q being north),
➢ ZQ is measured equal to the latitude.
➢ NP is equal to ZQ and is marked from north point of the rational horizon
if latitude is north and from south if latitude is south.
➢ The declination circle is marked north or south of equinoctial as per
declination.
➢ The points d and d’ are marked by angle at the zenith equal to amplitude.
➢ Declination circle can be also marked by measuring QX on the meridian
equal to declination northward or southward according to name of the
declination.
➢ In above figure UX represents the North declination of the body X.
➢ In this diagram all heavenly bodies above the rational horizon can be
shown.

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➢ PXU is drawn with free hand curved towards the rational horizon passing
thru x and represents the celestial meridian of the observer.
➢ ZXA represents the vertical circle passing thru the body and
➢ AX is the true altitude of the body where as
➢ ZX is the zenith distance.
➢ PX represents the distance of the body from the elevated pole normally
referred to as the polar distance of the body.
➢ PZ equals to (90°-lat), is referred to as the co-latitude.

4. THE APPARENT DAILY PATH OF ALL BODIES

The Earth rotates on its axis from west to east, due which all heavenly bodies
appear to describe an east to west motion around the Earth each day. Thus a
heavenly body appears to rise on the eastern horizon, move westwards, its
altitude increasing till the body is on the observer’s meridian. Then the body is
said to culminate or transit the meridian. After culmination, it continues to move
westwards decreasing in altitude till it sets over the western horizon.
For an observer at the equator all bodies will be above his horizon for about 12
hrs and below his horizon for same duration.
For an observer in north latitude the heavenly bodies whose declination is north
will be above his horizon for more than 12 hrs and below his horizon for less
than 12 hrs.
The bodies whose declination is south will be above his horizon for less than 12
hrs.
And for a stationary observer, the interval between rising and culmination of a
body will be equal to the interval between its culmination and setting, provided
its declination remains unchanged.
Also under the same circumstances, its amplitude at rising will be equal to that
at setting.
Observer in North Latitude
For an observer at the north pole the heavenly bodies whose declination is
north will remain above his horizon for 24 hrs and will not rise and set.
The altitude of these bodies will remain same all the time. Heavenly bodies
with southerly declination will not be visible.
Daily Motion and Horizon System of Coordinates

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RISING AND SETTING OF BODIES

We have seen above that the heavenly bodies rise and set due to rotation of the
earth.
➢ The visible sun rise or moon rise occurs when the upper limb is visible.
➢ Theoretical sunrise and sunset occurs when the True Sun’s centre is
on the observer’s rational horizon.
➢ The true altitude of the Sun is then 0° and its true zenith distance 90°.
➢ The times of theoretical sunrise or sunset, can be obtained by solving
the PZX triangle in which ZX is 90°.

➢ Due to refraction the sun appears higher than its actual altitude due to
which the theoretical sunrise is after visible sunrise.

➢ In the nautical almanac the times of visible sunrise and sunset for various
latitudes is listed.
➢ Interpolation is necessary for latitude of the ship.
➢ Though the times given are strictly Greenwich, Mean time of the
occurrences on the Greenwich meridian for the middle day, they may be
taken as the LMT of the occurrence in any longitude for any of the three
days on the page without appreciable error, particularly in low latitudes.
To find accurate time of rising and setting, interpolation for longitude and
for the day (other than for the middle day on the page) would also be
required.
Moonrise and Moonset
At visible moonrise and moonset, the true altitude of the Moon is
approximately 0°07′ for an observer at sea level allowing 34′ for
refraction,
16′ for semi-diameter and 57′ for parallax (− 34′ − 16′ + 57′ = 07′).
Thus, in the case of the Moon, visible and theoretical rising /setting
occur at about the same time.
On the right hand day pages of the nautical almanac LMT of moonrise and
moonset on the Greenwich meridian is tabulated for each day, for various
latitudes.
The times of these phenomenon for the first day on the following page is
also tabulated to help in interpolation.
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Due to large (about 50 minutes) daily retardation of moonrise and moonset a

correction for the observer’s longitude has also to be applied to the tabulated
times to obtain LMT moonrise or moonset at any position, in addition to
interpolation for latitude.
To find precise times of moonrise or moonset, first interpolate for latitude
for the day in question and also for the preceding day, if in East longitude,
and for the following day if in west longitude.
The difference between the two times so obtained multiplied by the
observer’s longitude and divided by 360°, gives the longitude correction.
Generally, the longitude correction is to be subtracted for East longitudes
and added for West longitudes.
This rule may not hold well particularly in high latitudes and near spring and
autumnal equinoxes, when moonrise and moonset times on succeeding days
may become earlier.
The time of theoretical rising and setting of bodies may be calculated using
nautical almanac and by solving quadrantal spherical triangle.
THE PZX TRIANGLE
The celestial triangle or PZX
triangle is formed by the
coordinates used in the
geographical coordinate
system, celestial coordinate
system and the horizon
coordinate system.
Let us revise the different
coordinate systems.
Systems Geographical Equinoctial Horizon
(Terrestrial) Horizontal
Reference Equator Equinoctial Rational Horizon
Horizontal Grid Parallels of Parallels of Parallels of
Latitude declination or altitude or circles
Declination of equal altitude
circles
Vertical Prime meridian Celestial Observer
Reference Meridian Principle/Prime
passing thru vertical circle

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Greenwich,
Aries,
Vertical Grid Meridians Hour circles or Vertical circles
Celestial
meridians
Horizontal Longitude GHA, SHA, Azimuth,
Coordinate LHA Azimuth angle or
Amplitude
Vertical Latitude Declination True Altitude
Coordinate
Poles Earth’s Poles N/S Celestial Zenith and Nadir
N/S poles

PZX Sides:
➢ Co-Latitude,( PZ)
➢ Polar distance, (PX)
➢ Zenith distance, (ZX)

➢ The Celestial triangle PZX is a

spherical triangle on the celestial sphere.
➢ The vertices of the celestial triangle are the elevated pole (P),
observer’s Zenith (Z), the celestial body (X).
➢ The sides of the triangle are great circle sides and so the triangle is a
spherical triangle PZX on the celestial sphere. Its side are PZ (co-
latitude, 90º-latitude), ZX (Zenith Distance, 90-True Altitude), PX
(Polar distance, 90 ± declination).
➢ The angles of the celestial triangle are P (Hour angle, Z (Azimuth
angle), X (Parallatic angle).
➢ Most celestial navigation calculations involve the solution of the
spherical triangle PZX.
➢ The PZX triangle is used in the following :
(i) To find true azimuth to find compass error.
(ii) To find longitude where the DR Lat. cuts the PL and
direction of the PL. (Longitude By Chronometer)
(iii) To identify an unknown star.
(iv) To compute altitude of the celestial body.
(v) To find initial course, final course and great circle distance
when sailing along a great circle track.
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(vi) Rising and setting of celestial bodies.

(vii) Duration of day light
The celestial triangle can also be shown on the plane of the observer’s rational
horizon.
N Polar Distance, 90 + Decl. Co-Latitude, 90 − Lat Zenith Distance, 90 − T.
The PZX Triangle
In Spherical triangle PZX
➢ PZ = Co Latitude = 90 – Latitude
➢ PX = 90 – Declination (When Lat. and Declination of same name)
➢ PX = 90 + Declination (Lat. and Declination of opposite name)
➢ ZX = Zenith distance = 90 – T. Altitude
➢ ∠ P = EHA (when body East of meridian)
➢ ∠ P = LHA (when body West of meridian)
➢ ∠ Z = Azimuth Angle
➢ ∠ X = Parallatic Angle
➢ NP = Elevation of the pole = Latitude QZ = Latitude of the observer
➢ MX = Declination of the body
➢ AX = True Altitude
➢ QZ = Latitude of the observer
➢ NESW = Observer’s Rational Horizon.
AZIMUTH, QUADRANTAL BEARINGS AND 360º NOTATION
BEARING
Azimuth is defined as the angle at the zenith or arc of rational horizon
contained between the principal vertical and vertical circle passing through
the body.
Quadrantal Azimuth may be defined as the shortest angle subtended at the
observer’s zenith between the North or South principal vertical to the
vertical circle passing thru the body measured eastward or westward.
This is the quadrantal azimuth and is measured East or West of the North or
South principal vertical.
The value of the quadrantal Azimuth is less than 90º and the azimuth is
prefixed “N” or “S” depending on whether the body is bearing northerly or
southerly from the observer and in calculations the name of the “c”
correction is given.

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The azimuth is suffixed “E” depending on whether the body is east of the
observer’s meridian or rising and its suffixed “W” depending on whether the
body is west of the observer’s meridian or setting.
In the Figure 7.13, Azimuth S30º W, indicated by lined angle, means that the
body is 30º west of south principal vertical.
True Azimuth or 360º
Notation bearing may be
defined as the angle
subtended at the observer
contained between the
True North and the
vertical circle passing
thru the body measured
clockwise.
Its value varies from 000º to 360º.
In Figure 7.13, it has been indicated by an arrow and its value is 210º.
Azimuth Angle is defined as the angle Z of the spherical triangle PZX. The
value of the Azimuth angle is less than 180º.

SAQ 1
(a) Which pole is elevated and by how much if the observer is in
Latitude 22º S?
(b) Show the following on plane of the observer’s (in Latitude 15º S)
rational horizon
(i) A body, declination 10º S on the observer’s meridian
(ii) A body, of declination 30 º N and theoretically rising

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(iii) Sun, declination zero degrees and setting

(iv) A star declination S 29º and Azimuth S20ºE
(c) What is the true bearing of the star in question above?
(d) Quadrantal bearing of a star is N25ºW for an observer in Northern
Hemisphere. Find the True bearing of star and the azimuth angle.
(e) An observer in 34º 31′S latitude observed true altitude of star Spica
(Declination 11º 07’S) as 45º 18′. Find the sides of the celestial triangle so
formed.
(f) Amplitude of a body is E 10º N, what is its true bearing.

SUMMARY
➢ The observer identifies the position of the body in the sky by
azimuth and altitude of the body with reference to his meridian
and rational horizon.
➢ These two coordinates eventually give him the direction of his
position line and radius of position circle.
➢ The two coordinates are observer specific and will vary with
change in position.
➢ In the horizon system the observer’s zenith is pole.
➢ The navigator combines the geographical, equinoctial and horizon
system to form the navigation triangle PZX.
➢ This triangle is solved in celestial navigation to obtain position
lines, that are combined to get a fix.
KEY WORDS
Zenith : It is a point vertically above the observer.
Nadir : It is a point vertically below the observer.
Rational Horizon : Rational horizon is a great circle on the celestial
sphere every point on which is 90 from observer’s zenith.
Vertical Circle It is a great circle on the celestial sphere passing
through the observer’s zenith and Nadir.
Prime Vertical Circle : It is the vertical circle passing through East
west points of observer’s rational horizon.

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Principal Vertical Circle : It is the vertical circle passing through

North South points of observer’s rational horizon.
Circles of Equal Altitude : Circles of equal altitude are small circles
on the celestial sphere parallel to the plane of rational horizon.
True Altitude : It is the arc of vertical circle passing through the
body contained between the rational horizon and the centre of the
body.
True Zenith Distance : It is the arc of vertical circle passing through
the body contained between the observer’s zenith and the centre of
the body.
Azimuth: It is the angle at the observer’s zenith or arc of the
observer’s rational horizon contained between the principal vertical
and the vertical circle passing thru the body. It is measured east or
west of the observers meridian from North or South.
Amplitude : It is the angle at the observer’s zenith or arc of the
observer’s rational horizon contained between the prime vertical and
the vertical circle passing through the body when the body is
theoretically rising or setting. 50

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