Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)

A Million Dollar Math Problem

Am¤¢e MwYZ
P = NP
P  NP
P versus NP

cÖ_g LÛ

gynv¤§v` kvgxg
†Pqvig¨vb, evsjv‡`k MwYZ dvD‡Ûkb

cÖKvkK
evsjv‡`k MwYZ dvD‡Ûkb
7
Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)

To

Stephen Arthur Cook (1939 – )

&

Leonid Anatolievich Levin (1948 – )

8
 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)

P versus NP Problem
If P = NP, then the world would be a profoundly different
place than we usually assume it to be.
– Scott Joel Aaronson
hw` P = NP nq, Zvn‡j c„w_exUv Avgiv mvaviYZ hv g‡b Kwi Zvi †P‡q
Mfxifv‡e wfbœ RvqMv n‡e|

Stephen Cook (2008)

c„w_exi mevB GKgZ, GKwU c„ôv wjL‡Z hZÿY mgq jv‡M, Zv co‡Z Kg mgq
jv‡M| myZivs †jLvi mgq > covi mgq|

Avevi c„w_exi mevB GUvI GKgZ, GKwU c„ôvq hZ¸‡jv kã †jLv nq, wVK
ZZ¸‡jv kãB cov nq| myZivs †jLvi kã msL¨v = covi kã msL¨v|

hw` GK c„ôvi g‡a¨ w÷‡db KzK-†K wb‡q GKwU KweZv †jLv nq hvi kã msL¨v
n‡e 50, Z‡e G‡K mgm¨vi mgvavb ejv n‡e| Avi †mB 50 k‡ãi †mB
KweZvwU cov n‡j, GB cov‡K mgm¨v mgvav‡bi †fwiwd‡Kkb ejv n‡e| ZvB
Avgiv mevB GKgZ †h, †Kvb mgm¨v mgvavb Kivi †_‡K †fwidvB Kiv
9
 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
mnRZi, †hgb KweZvwU †jLvi †_‡K cov mnRZi| G‡K MvwYwZKfv‡e †jLv
hvq, P  NP (A_ev P > NP A_ev wKQz `yj©f †ÿ‡Î P < NP).

Avevi Avgiv ej‡Z cvwi, whwb KweZvwU wj‡L‡Qb wZwb wVK 50wU kã wj‡L‡Qb
Avi whwb KweZvwU c‡o‡Qb wZwb wVK 50wU kãB c‡o‡Qb| Zvn‡j †jL‡Ki
†jLv Avi cvV‡Ki cov †Zv GKB iKg (kã msL¨vi w`K n‡Z)| G‡K
MvwYwZKfv‡e †jLv hvq, P = NP.

wK Avðvh© welq! GKB mgm¨vi †ÿ‡Î `yB iKg djvdj!!

n¨v, Avgiv c„w_ex †kÖô mvZwU wg‡jwbqvg mgm¨vi Ab¨Zg P versus NP

Problem wb‡qB Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z hvw”Q|

1971 mv‡j w÷‡db KzK Ges 1973 mv‡j wjIwb` †jwfb ¯^vaxbfv‡e GB P
versus NP Problem Dc¯’vcb K‡ib, hv eZ©gvb MwYZkv‡¯¿i GKwU Am¤¢e
MwYZ mgm¨v wn‡e‡m me©Î weivR Ki‡Q|

- Av”Qv eySjvg| Gevi ¸iæ GB mgm¨vwU‡K Av‡iv mnR K‡i Avgv‡K

eywS‡q `vI bv wcøR!

- OK wkl¨, Z‡e cy‡iv eBwU g‡bv‡hvM w`‡q co‡Z _v‡Kv...|

10
 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)

Kvev kixd I R¨vwgwZK `~iZ¡

Kaba Sharif

A‡bK w`b Av‡Mi K_v| GK Avjøvn&i Ijx AvQi bvgv‡Ri Iqv‡³i wKQz mgq
c~‡e© Zuvi evwoi mvg‡b `uvwo‡q Zuvi Lv‡`g‡K ej‡jb, P‡jv Avgiv AvQ‡ii
bvgvRwU Kvev kix‡d wM‡q cwo|

nRi‡Zi K_v ï‡b Lv‡`gwU Avðh©¨ n‡q evKiæ× n‡q †Mj| KviY, H Ijxi
evwo n‡Z Kvev kix‡di `~iZ¡ cÖvq GK nvRvi gvBj| cv‡q †nu‡U †M‡j GK
gv‡mi †ewk mgq jvM‡e| A_P AvQi bvgv‡Ri evwK Av‡Q gv‡Î K‡qK wgwbU|
Lv‡`‡gi we¯§qKi wbieZv †`‡L nRiZ wR‡Ám Ki‡jb, Kx Zzwg Kvev kix‡d
hv‡e bv? Lv‡`g gy‡L RiZvi my‡i Reve w`‡jv, Rx ûRyi! wKš‘ wKfv‡e GB nvRvi
gvBj `~i‡Z¡i c_ cvo n‡ev| In& GB K_v, †Zvgvi Zvn‡j wek¦vm n‡”Q bv -
ûRy‡ii Reve| Lv‡`g ejj, Avgvi wek¦vm eo K_v bq, gvbyl ïb‡j †Zv
Avgv‡`i cvMj ej‡e|

Gevi Lv‡`gwU‡K fimv w`‡q ûRyi ej‡jb, Zzwg †PvL eÜ K‡i Avgvi †cQ‡b
†cQ‡b nvuU‡Z _v‡Kv| Avwg hLb †PvL Lyj‡Z ej‡ev ZLb †PvL †Lvj‡e| Lv‡`g
Zvi †PvL eÜ K‡i ûRy‡ii †cQ‡b †cQ‡b nvuU‡Z jvM‡jv Avi cv‡qi dzU †÷c
(K`g msL¨v) ¸b‡Z jvM‡jv| 24 K`g hvIqvi ci ûRyi ej‡jb, Gevi †PvL

11
 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
†Lvj| Lv‡`gwU Zvi `yÕ‡PvL Ly‡j †`L‡jv mwZ¨ Zvi mvg‡b Kvev kixd| †m gnv
Lywk n‡q Avjøvn&i ïKwiqv K‡i ûRy‡ii mv‡_ AvQ‡ii bvgvR co‡jv|

AvQi bvgvR †k‡l ûRyi Lv‡`g‡K ej‡jb, P‡jv Gevi evwo wd‡i wM‡q gvMwi‡ei
bvgvR cwo| Gevi Lv‡`g `ªæZ Zvi †PvL eÜ K‡i ûRy‡ii †cQ‡b †cQ‡b nvuU‡Z
jvM‡jv Avi Zvi dzU †÷c ¸b‡Z jvM‡jv| 12 K`g hvIqvi ci ûRyi ej‡jb,
Gevi †PvL †Lvj| Lv‡`gwU Zvi `yÕ‡PvL Ly‡j †`L‡jv mwZ¨B Zviv evwo P‡j
G‡m‡Q| †m gnv Lywk n‡q Avjøvn&i ïKwiqv K‡i ûRyi‡K GKwU cÖkœ Ki‡jv,
hvIqv I Avmvi mgq evwo I Kvevi `~iZ¡ GKB _vK‡jI hvIqvi mgq 24 K`g
wKš‘ Avmvi mgq 12 K`g jvMvi KviY wK?

Rev‡e ûRyi ej‡jb, hvIqvi mgq †Zvgvi hZUzKz Cgvb wQj, Avmvi mgq Cgvb
wظb e„w× †c‡q‡Q| ZvB wd‡i Avmvi mgq †Zvgvi K`g msL¨v A‡a©K n‡q‡Q|...

NUbvwU we‡kølY K‡i Avgiv cvB, ûRy‡ii evwo n‡Z Kvev kix‡di hvIqvi c‡_i
`~iZ¡ Ges Kvev kixd †_‡K ûRy‡ii evwo‡Z Avmvi c‡_i `~iZ¡ ci¯úi mgvb|
Kv‡RB MvwYwZKfv‡e Dfq R¨vwgwZK `~iZ¡ mgvb n‡j Aek¨B †jLv hvq, P =
NP. wKš‘ hvIqvi mgq †j‡MwQj 24 K`g Ges wd‡i Avmvi mgq †j‡MwQj 12
K`g| d‡j hvIqvi I Avmvi mgq Aek¨B Amgvb| GQvov wbðqB Avgiv Rvwb
†h, †h‡Kvb bZzb ¯’v‡b †h‡Z hZ mgq jv‡M wd‡i Avm‡Z mvaviYZ GKUz n‡jI
Kg mgq jv‡M, A_P Dfq †ÿ‡Î `~iZ¡ mgvb Zv‡K| ZvB G‡K MvwYwZKfv‡e
†jLv hvq, P  NP (Av‡iv fv‡jvfv‡e ej‡j, P > NP).

G †h fvix A™¢z` e¨vcvi! GKB R¨vwgwZK `~iZ¡ AwZµg Kivi mgq (†Kvb
mgm¨v mgvavb Kiv) Avi wd‡i Avmvi mgq (†mB mgm¨vwUi mgvavb †fwidvB
Kiv) GKiKg bq! A_P R¨vwgwZK `~iZ¡wU GKB _vK‡Q (P = NP) wKš‘
hvIqv-Avmvi mgq wfbœ n‡”Q (P  NP)| GwK Am¤¢e bq?!

AveviI ejwQ, wK Avðvh© welq! GKB mgm¨vi †ÿ‡Î `yB iKg djvdj!!

n¨v, Avgiv c„w_ex †kÖô mvZwU wg‡jwbqvg mgm¨vi Ab¨Zg P versus NP

Problem wb‡qB Av‡jvPbv KiwQ|

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 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
- ¸iæ, P versus NP Problem-wU mnRfv‡e Dc¯’vcb Ki‡Z wM‡q
†`wL Av‡iv RwUj K‡i Zzj‡j|

- wkl¨, †Zvgvi Kv‡Q wK ZvB g‡b n‡”Q?

- ZvQvov Avi Kx!

- OK wkl¨, Z‡e g~j mgm¨vwU eySvi Rb¨ mvg‡bi c„ô¸‡jv g‡bv‡hvM w`‡q
co‡Z _v‡Kv (GgbwK Kw¤úDUvi mv‡q‡Ýi G¨vj‡Mvwi`g I †cÖvMÖvwgs fvlv eySvi
Rb¨I)...|

13
 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
P, NP, CoNP, NP-KwVb Ges NP-m¤ú~Y©Zv
MYbvi RwUjZvi g~j welqmg~n
GB Aa¨v‡qi g~j D‡Ïk¨ n‡jv, AvgRbZv‡K wek¦weL¨vZ P versus NP
Problem-wU Lye mnRfv‡e eySv‡bvi Rb¨ MYbvi RwUjZvi g~j cuvPwU †kÖwY P,
NP, CoNP, NP-KwVb Ges NP-m¤ú~Y©Zvi ZË¡ wb‡q we¯ÍvwiZ Av‡jvPbv Kiv|

P ebvg NP-cÖkœwU Avgiv‡`i wRÁvmv K‡i †h, mgvav‡bi mwVKZv cixÿv Kivi
†P‡q mgvavb Lyu‡R cvIqv KwVb wKbv| A_©vr †Kvb mgm¨vi mgvavb †ei Kiv Gi
mwVKZv hvPvB Kivi †_‡K KwVbZi| GwU e¨vcKfv‡e wek¦vm Kiv nq †h, P Ges
NP-Gi mgZzj¨Zv (P=NP) BwZevPK wKš‘ P me©`v NP n‡Z Avjv`v|

hw`I P ebvg NP-cÖkœwU AgxgvswmZ i‡q †M‡Q, NP-m¤ú~Y©Zvi ZË¡wU NP-†Z

wbw`©ó mgm¨vi RwUjZvi cÖgvY †`q †h, Zviv mgMÖ †kÖwYi Rb¨ me©Rbxb|
Avðh©RbKfv‡e h‡_ó, NP-m¤ú~Y© mgm¨v we`¨gvb, Ges MwYZ I weÁv‡bi
wewfbœ †ÿ‡Î D™¢‚Z kZ kZ cÖvK…wZK MYbvMZ mgm¨v NP-m¤ú~Y© msµvšÍ|

Kw¤úDUvi mv‡q‡Ý Ggb wKQz mgm¨v Av‡Q hv‡`i mgvavb GL‡bv cvIqv hvqwb,
mgm¨v¸‡jv‡K †hmKj †kÖwY‡Z fvM Kiv n‡q‡Q †m¸‡jv RwUjZvi †kÖwY bv‡g
cwiwPZ| RwUjZv Z‡Ë¡, GKwU RwUjZv †kÖYx n‡jv m¤úwK©Z RwUjZvi mv‡_
mgm¨vi mgwó| GB †kÖYx¸wj weÁvbx‡`i‡K mgm¨v¸wj mgvavb Ki‡Z Ges
mgvavb¸wj hvPvB Ki‡Z Zv‡`i KZUv mgq Ges ¯’vb cÖ‡qvRb Zvi wfwˇZ
mgm¨v¸wj‡K †Mvôxfz³ Ki‡Z mnvqZv K‡i| GwU MYbv Z‡Ë¡i †mB kvLv hv
GKwU mgm¨v mgvav‡bi Rb¨ cÖ‡qvRbxq ms¯’vb¸wj wb‡q KvR K‡i|
mvaviY im` n‡jv mgq Ges ¯’vb, hvi A_© GKwU mgm¨v mgvavb Ki‡Z
A¨vj‡Mvwi`g KZUzKz mgq †bq Ges KZUzKz †ggwi e¨envi K‡i|

GKwU A¨vj‡Mvwi`‡gi mgq RwUjZv welqwU GKwU mgm¨v mgvav‡bi Rb¨

cÖ‡qvRbxq avc¸‡jvi msL¨v eY©bv Ki‡Z e¨eüZ nq| Z‡e DËiwU hvPvB Ki‡Z
KZÿY jv‡M Zv eY©bv Ki‡ZI GwU e¨envi Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i|

14
 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
GKwU A¨vj‡Mvwi`‡gi ¯’vb RwUjZv eY©bv K‡i †h, A¨vj‡Mvwi`g Pvjv‡bvi Rb¨
KZUzKz †g‡gvwi cÖ‡qvRb|

RwUjZvi †kÖYx¸‡jv GKB ai‡Yi mgm¨v¸‡jv msMwVZ Ki‡Z LyeB `iKvix|

RwUjZvi cÖKv‡f`
MYbvi RwUjZv‡K cuvPwU cÖavb †kÖYx‡Z fvM Kiv hvq| h_vt
1. P Class
2. NP Class
3. CoNP Class
4. NP-hard
5. NP-complete

Gevi G¸‡jv wb‡P we¯ÍvwiZfv‡e e¨vL¨v Kiv n‡jvt

P Class
P †kÖwY‡Z P gv‡b wba©viY‡hvM¨ mgq (Polynomial Time)| GwU wm×v‡šÍi
mgm¨v¸wji msMÖn (Ônu¨vÕ ev ÔbvÕ DËimn mgm¨v) hv wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡q GKwU
wba©viK †gwkb ev A¨vj‡Mvwi`g Øviv mgvavb Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| A_©vr †h
mgm¨v¸‡jv †Kvb GKwU wbw`©ó mg‡qi g‡a¨ mgvavb‡hvM¨ Zv P †kÖwYfz³|

g~j ˆewkó¨t
(1) P UvBc mgm¨vi mgvavb Lyu‡R cvIqv mnR|
(2) P cÖvqkB MYbvg~jK mgm¨vi GKwU †kÖwY hv mgvavb‡hvM¨ Ges
Uª¨v‡±ej| Uª¨v‡±ej gv‡b mgm¨v¸wj Z‡Ë¡i cvkvcvwk Abykxj‡bI
mgvavb Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| wKš‘ †h mgm¨v¸‡jv ZvwË¡Kfv‡e mgvavb Kiv
hvq wKš‘ ev¯Í‡e Kiv hvq bv †m¸wj‡K BbUª¨v‡±ej (Amva¨) ejv nq|

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 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
wKQz D`vniYt
(1) GKwU mij mgxKiY mgvavb I Gi ïw× cixÿv (hv LyeB mnR)|
(2) wKQz msL¨vi M.mv.¸. wbY©q (hv LyeB mnR)|
(3) GKwU k‡ãi Aÿi¸‡jvi m‡e©v”P msL¨K web¨vm wbY©q|
(4) K‡qKwU e¯‘i g‡a¨ me©vwaK wgj Lyu‡R cvIqv|
(5) &wjwbqvi †cÖvMÖvwgs Gi m‡e©v”PKiY I me©wb¤œKiY mgvavb|

NP Class
NP †kÖwY‡Z NP gv‡b Awba©viY‡hvM¨ mgq (Non-deterministic
Polynomial Time)| GwU wm×v‡šÍi mgm¨v¸wji msMÖn hv wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡q
GKwU A-wba©viK †gwkb ev A¨vj‡Mvwi`g Øviv mgvavb Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| A_©vr †h
mgm¨v¸‡jv †Kvb GKwU Awbw`©ó mg‡qi g‡a¨ mgvavb‡hvM¨ Zv NP †kÖwYfz³|

g~j ˆewkó¨t
(1) NP †kÖwYi mgm¨v¸wji mgvavb Lyu‡R cvIqv KwVb| KviY NP †kÖwYi
mgm¨v¸wj GKwU A-wba©viK †gwkb ev A¨vj‡Mvwi`g Øviv mgvavb Kiv
nq, Z‡e mgvavb¸wj hvPvB Kiv mnR|
(2) NP mgm¨v¸wj wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡q GKwU Uzwis †gwkb ev A¨vj‡Mvwi`g
Øviv hvPvB Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i|

wKQz D`vniYt
(1) Sudoku mgm¨v¸‡jv NP †kÖwYi (hvi mgvavb `ªæZ hvPvB‡hvM¨) wKš‘
Sudoku me©`v P †kÖwYi nq bv (hv `ªæZ mgvavb‡hvM¨ bq)|
(2) Boolean Satisfiability Problem (SAT).
(3) Hamiltonian Path Problem (SAT).
(4) Graph coloring.
(5) Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP).

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 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
Co-NP Class
Co-NP n‡jv NP †kÖwYi cwic~iK (Complement of NP Class)| Gi gv‡b
hw` Co-NP-†Z GKwU mgm¨vi DËi ÔbvÕ nq, Zvn‡j †mB cÖgvYwU wba©viY‡hvM¨
mg‡q hvPvB Kiv †h‡Z cv‡i| A_©vr NP †kÖwYi †Kvb mgm¨vi Ônu¨vÕ-D`vniY Co-
NP †kÖwY‡Z ÔbvÕ-D`vniY n‡q D‡V Ges NP †kÖwYi †Kvb mgm¨vi ÔbvÕ-D`vniY
Co-NP †kÖwY‡Z Ônu¨vÕ-D`vniY n‡q D‡V|

g~j ˆewkó¨t
(1) hw` †Kvb mgm¨v ‘X’ NP-†Z _v‡K Zvn‡j Gi cwic~iK ‘X’ Co-NP-
†Z _vK‡e|
(2) GKwU NP Ges Co-NP mgm¨vi Rb¨ wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡qi g‡a¨
me¸‡jv mgvavb hvPvB Kivi cÖ‡qvRb †bB| eis NP A_ev Co-NP
Gi †h‡Kvb GKwU wbw`©ó mgvavb wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡qi g‡a¨ hvPvB
Ki‡jB n‡e|

wKQz D`vniYt
(1) GKwU msL¨v †gŠwjK wKbv Zv hvPvB Kiv|
(2) †Kvb GKwU msL¨vi Drcv`K¸‡jv wbY©q Kiv|

NP-hard Class
GKwU NP-hard mgm¨v Kgc‡ÿ NP-†Z me‡P‡q KwVb mgm¨v¸‡jvi g‡Zv
KwVb Ges GwU Ggb mgm¨v¸‡jvi †kÖwY hv‡Z NP-Gi cÖwZwU mgm¨v NP-hard
ch©šÍ K‡g hvq| NP-hard mgm¨v¸wj NP-Gi Dcv`vb n‡Z n‡e bv; cÖK…Zc‡ÿ,
G¸‡jv GgbwK wm×všÍ‡hvM¨ bvI n‡Z cv‡i|

g~j ˆewkó¨t
(1) mKj NP-hard mgm¨v NP-†Z †bB|
(2) NP-hard mgm¨v¸‡jv hvPvB Ki‡Z A‡bK mgq jv‡M| Gi gv‡b n‡jv,
hw` GKwU NP-hard mgm¨vi mgvavb †`qv nq Z‡e GwU mwVK wKbv Zv
hvPvB Ki‡Z A‡bK mgq jv‡M|
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 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
(3) GKwU mgm¨v A hw` NP-hard-G _v‡K, cÖwZwU mgm¨v L Z‡e NP-†Z
_vK‡e Ges NP-Gi cÖwZwU mgm¨vi Rb¨ L †_‡K A ch©šÍ wba©viY‡hvM¨
mgq n«vm _v‡K|

wKQz D`vniYt
(1) Halting problem.
(2) Qualified Boolean formulas.
(3) No Hamiltonian cycle.

NP-complete Class
GKwU mgm¨v NP-complete n‡e hw` †mwU NP Ges NP-hard DfqB nq|
NP-Gi me‡P‡q KwVb mgm¨v¸‡jvB NP-complete mgm¨v|

Avm‡j NP-complete mgm¨v n‡jv MYbvMZ RwUjZvi †h‡Kvb GKwU †kÖwY hvi
Rb¨ †Kvb Kvh©Ki mgvavb A¨vjMwi`g cvIqv hvqwb| Kw¤úDUvi weÁv‡bi A‡bK
¸iæZ¡c~Y© mgm¨v GB †kÖwYi AšÍM©Z| †hgb- ågYKvix weµqKgx©i mgm¨v, mš‘wói
mgm¨v, MÖvd-Kfvwis mgm¨v BZ¨vw`|

g~j ˆewkó¨t
(1) NP-complete mgm¨v¸‡jv we‡kl, KviY NP †kÖwYi †h‡Kvb mgm¨v
wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡q NP-complete mgm¨vq iƒcvšÍwiZ ev n«vm n‡Z
cv‡i|
(2) hw` †KD wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡q GKwU NP-complete mgm¨v mgvavb
Ki‡Z cv‡i, Zvn‡j †m wba©viY‡hvM¨ mg‡q †h‡Kvb NP mgm¨v mgvavb
Ki‡Z cvi‡e|

wKQz D`vniYt
(1) 0/1 Knapsack.
(2) Hamiltonian cycle.
(3) Satisfiability (SAT).
(4) Vertex cover.
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 Am¤¢e MwYZ-1 (iPbv: gynv¤§v` kvgxg, Cell: 01815443199)
RwUjZvi cÖKv‡f‡`i WvqvMÖvg (wPÎ)

wPÎt MYbvi RwUjZvi cÖKvi‡f‡`i mw¤§wjZ wPÎ

G‡Zvÿ‡Yi Av‡jvPbvwU wb‡Pi †Uwe‡j mvivsk AvKv‡i Avgiv †`Lv‡Z cvwit

RwUjZvi †kÖwY ag©MZ ˆewkó¨
P Easily solvable in polynomial time.
NP Yes, answers can be checked in polynomial time.
Co-NP No, answers can be checked in polynomial time.
NP-hard All NP-hard problems are not in NP and it takes
a long time to check them.
NP-complete A problem that is NP and NP-hard is NP-complete.

†jLv AviI evwK Av‡Q...

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