Ultimate Math Notes

A summary of (almost) the entire math textbook for the upcoming

Annual Exam, for last minute revision while you’re placing your bags
outside the exam hall.

Note: This is only a summary so it would be better to study the textbook first. Proofs
for easy theorems and small chapters aren’t included. (DM if you want to include
them or notice any mistakes in these notes.). Practice as much as you can from
worksheets and use these notes for last minute revision. You won’t pass just by
learning theory. I highly recommend you also do example questions in the textbook.

Good luck! - Joel

Circles
Theorem 9.1 – If two chords are equal, then they subtend
equal angles at the center of the circle.
fg

Given – AB=CD
To prove – ∠1 = ∠2
Proof – In △AOB and △DOC –
1. AB = CD (given)
2. AO = DO (radii of the same circle)
3. BO = CO (radii of the same circle)
∴ △AOB ≅ △DOC by SSS Criterion.
∴ By CPCT, ∠1 = ∠2.
d
Theorem 9.2 – If the angles subtended by two chords at
the center are equal, then the chords are equal.
fg

Given – ∠AOB = ∠DOC

To prove – AB = CD
Proof – In △AOB and △DOC –
1. ∠AOB = ∠DOC (given)
2. AO = DO (radii of the same circle)
3. BO = CO (radii of the same circle)
∴ △AOB ≅ △DOC by SAS Criterion.
∴ By CPCT, AB = CD.
d
Theorem 9.3 – Perpendicular from the centre of a circle
to a chord bisects the chord.
Given – OM ⊥ AB (∠OMA = ∠OMB = 90°)
To prove – AM = BM
Constructions – Radii OA and OB
Proof – In △OMA and △OMB –
1. OM = MO (common side)
2. OA = OB (radii of the same circle)
3. ∠OMA = ∠OMB = 90° (OM ⊥ AB)
 ∴ △AOB ≅ △DOC by RHS Criterion.
∴ By CPCT, AM = BM.
d
Theorem 9.4 – The line drawn through the centre of a
circle to bisect a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
Given – AM = BM
To prove – OM ⊥ AB (∠OMA = ∠OMB = 90°)
Constructions – Radii OA and OB
Proof – In △OMA and △OMB –
1. OM = MO (common side)
2. OA = OB (radii of the same circle)
3. AM = BM (given)
∴ △AOB ≅ △DOC by SSS Criterion.
∴ By CPCT, ∠OMA = ∠OMB — 1
∠OMA + ∠OMB = 180° (Linear Pair) –
2∠OMB = 180° (From -1-)
∠OMB = ∠OMA = 90°
∴ OM ⊥ AB

Theorem 9.5 – Equal chords are equidistant from the

centre
Given – AB = CD
To prove – OM = ON
Constructions – OM ⊥ AB, ON ⊥ AB, OA and OC
Proof – In △OMA and △ONC –
1. OA = OC (radii of the same circle)
2. AM = CN (AB = CD & ½ AB = ½ CD) (Since
perpendicular to the chord bisects the
chord)
3. ∠AMO = ∠CNO = 90° (OM ⊥ AB & ON ⊥ AB)
∴ △OMA ≅ △ONC by RHS Criterion.
∴ By CPCT, OM = ON

Theorem 9.6 – Chords equidistant from the centre of the circle are equal in length
Given – OM = ON
To prove – AB = CD
Constructions – OM ⊥ AB, ON ⊥ AB, OA and OC
Proof – In △OMA and △ONC –
1. OA = OC (radii of the same circle)
2. OM = ON (given)
3. ∠AMO = ∠CNO = 90° (OM ⊥ AB & ON ⊥ AB)
∴ △OMA ≅ △ONC by RHS Criterion.
∴ By CPCT, AM = CN — 1
AM = BM (⊥ from centre to a chord bisects it)
CN = DN (⊥ from centre to a chord bisects it)
2AM = 2CN (From -1-)
∴ AB = CD
Theorem 9.7 – The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle
subtended by it at any point on the remaining part of the circle. We also call this
theorem as “Degree Measure Theorem” or “Central Angle Theorem”

Given – Arc PQ of a circle subtends ∠POQ at the center “O” and ∠PAQ at point “A”
lying on the remaining part of the circle
To Prove – ∠POQ = 2∠PAQ
Constructions – Join AO and extend it to a point “B”
Proof – Consider the three following cases where –
i) Arc PQ is a minor arc
ii) Arc PQ is a semi-circle
iii) Arc PQ is a major arc
We are proving this theorem for all of the three cases –
In △OAP, OA = OP (radii of the same circle)
⟹ ∠1 = ∠2 (angles opposite to equal sides are equal)
In △OAQ, OA = OQ (radii of the same circle)
⟹ ∠3 = ∠4 (angles opposite to equal sides are equal)
In △OAP, ∠BOP = ∠1 + ∠2 (exterior angle property)
⟹ ∠BOP = 2∠1 — 1
In △OAQ, ∠BOQ = ∠3 + ∠4 (exterior angle property)
⟹ ∠BOQ = 2∠3 — 2
Adding -1- and -2-
∠BOP + ∠BOQ = 2(∠1 + ∠3)
∴ ∠POQ = 2∠PAQ — 3
For CASE-II where Arc PQ is a semicircle –
∠POQ = 2∠PAQ (From -3-)
180° = 2∠PAQ (POQ is a straight line)
∴ ∠PAQ = 90°
∴ Angle in a semicircle is always a right angle
For CASE-III where Arc PQ is a major arc –
⟹ -3- is replaced by Reflex ∠POQ = 2∠PAQ
Theorem 9.8 – Angles in the same segment are equal
Given – Chord PQ subtends ∠PAQ and ∠PBQ
To Prove – ∠PAQ = ∠PBQ
Constructions – Join PO and QO
Proof – Chord PQ subtends ∠POQ at the center
∠POQ = 2∠PAQ — 1 (Degree Measure Theorem)
∠POQ = 2∠PBQ — 2 (Degree Measure Theorem)
∴ 2∠PAQ = 2∠PBQ ⟹ ∠PAQ = ∠PBQ

Theorem 9.9 – If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles at two other
points lying on the same side of the line containing the line segment, the four points
are concyclic (they lie on the circle).

Theorem 9.10 – Pairs of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.

Theorem 9.11 – If the sum of a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral is 180°, then
the quadrilateral is cyclic.

Polynomials
Polynomials are algebraic expressions whose variables can only have a whole
number as its power. In the polynomial 5x + 1, 5x is the term and 5 is the coefficient
of x. Polynomials having the highest power as zero are called constant polynomials,
and 0 itself is called a zero polynomial (degree of zero polynomial is not defined)

A polynomial in a variable x can be denoted as p(x), and in the place of x we can put
any value that will subsequently replace x in the polynomial.

The degree of a polynomial is the highest power one of its terms has, and it is
grouped into monomials, binomials, trinomials and polynomials based on how many
terms it has. Based on degrees polynomials are constant, linear, quadratic and
cubic polynomials.

The zero of a polynomial p(x) is a number “a” such that p(a) = 0. Constant polynomial
has no zeroes, while zero polynomial has infinite zeroes

Factor theorem: If ‘a’ is a number such that p(a) = 0, then x-a is a factor of p(x)
Remainder theorem: If we divide a polynomial p(x) by x-a, the remainder is equal to
p(a) (Additionally if the remainder is zero then x-a is a factor of p(x))

Factorization and algebraic identities

Factorization of polynomials of degree 2 can be done by splitting the middle term

To factorize a polynomial ax2 + bx + c, we need to find two numbers p and q such
that pq = ac and p+q = b, thus splitting the polynomial into ax2 + px + qx + c
Now, in order to factorize a cubic polynomial p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, we must split d
into all of its possible factors (both +ve and -ve), and use the factor theorem to
identify which one of the factors of d in the form of (x-d) is a factor of p(x). Using long
division, we reduce the cubic polynomial to a quadratic one, and then we can
factorize normally using splitting of the middle term.
Ex: Factorize x3 - 23x2 + 142x - 120

The factors of -120 are ±1,±2,±3,±4,±5,±6,±8,±10,±12,±15,±24,±30,±60 and ±120

By trial and error, we find that p(1) = 0, meaning x-1 is a factor of p(x)

By long division, p(x)/x-1 = x2 - 22x + 120

Therefore p(x) = (x-1)(x2 - 22x + 120)
→ (x-1)(x2 - 10x - 12x + 120)
→ (x-1)(x(x-10)-12(x-10)
→ (x-1)(x-12)(x-10)

Therefore p(x) = x3 - 23x2 + 142x - 120 = (x-1)(x-12)(x-10)

Important algebraic identities to memorize:

1. (x+y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
2. (x-y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y2
3. x2-y2 = (x+y)(x-y)
4. (x+a)(x+b) = x2 + x(a+b) + ab
5. (x+y+z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2xz
6. (x+y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy(x+y)
7. (x-y)3 = x3 - y3 - 3xy(x-y)
8. x3 + y3 + z3 - 3xyz = (x+y+z) (x2+y2+z2-xy-yz-xz) (Note: if x+y+z = 0 then x3 + y3 + z3 =
3xyz)
9. x3 + y3 = (x+y)( x2 - xy + y2)
10. x3 - y3 = (x-y)(x2 + xy + y2)

Surface areas and volumes

Shape CSA/LSA TSA Volume

Cone πrl πr(r+l) ⅓ πr2h

Sphere N/A 4πr2 4/3 πr3

Cylinder 2πrh 2πr(r+h) πr2h

Hemisphere 2πr2 3πr2 ⅔ πr3

Cube 4x2 6x2 x3

Cuboid 2h(l+b) 2(lb+lh+bh) lbh

Number Systems
Different letters are used to denote different sets of numbers. N denotes Natural
numbers, W denotes whole numbers, Z denotes integers and Q denotes rational
numbers. A rational number is a number of the form p/q where p is any integer and
q is any non-zero integer. In between any two numbers there exists infinite rational
numbers between them
Irrational numbers are those numbers which cannot be represented in the p/q
format. There are also infinite irrational numbers. The combination of set of
irrational and rational numbers results in the formation of the set of Real numbers,
denoted as R. Every real number has a unique point on the number line

How to locate an irrational number on the number line:

- Square root method
This method is applicable only if the number under the square root sign (radicand)
is a natural number
Let us try to find 2 on the number line:
1. Construct a number line AD
with B as origin and make a
segment BC such that BC = 1
unit
2. Construct a line EC
perpendicular to BC at C
such that EC = 1 unit and
connect B and E to create a right angled
triangle BCE
3. After this construction, we know that BE =
2 2
𝐵𝐶 + 𝐸𝐶 = 1 + 1 = 2
4. Using a compass, we measure out a radii
that is of the length BE, and rotate the
compass such that it strikes the number
line at a point F
5. Therefore, we have obtained a segment BF
= BE = 2
In order to find any other irrational number on
the number line, we can use the same concept of
the Pythagorus theorem and construct a line of
length 1 unit perpendicular to a line of length 𝑛 − 1, connect the hypotenuse and
reflect that onto the number line to obtain the number 𝑛 on the number line

- Semi circle method

This method is used to find irrational numbers whose radicand is any real positive
rational number
Let us find 3. 5 on the number line
1. Construct a line AB of
length 3.5 and add a
line BC of length 1 to it
to make a line AC = 4.5
cm
2. Identify the midpoint of
AC and mark it as O,
and create a semi
circle of radius OA (½ AC)
3. Construct a line BD
perpendicular to B such that
D lies on the semi-circle
4. BD now has a value of 3. 5,
use a compass and reflect it
onto the line AC creating a line BF = BD
(Extend AC as necessary
5. Finally, construct the number line using B
as origin

Decimal expansion and operations on irrational numbers

All rational numbers can be represented as terminating decimals or

non-terminating repeating decimals. If a number has non-terminating
non-repeating decimal expansion then it is an irrational number
How to represent non-terminating recurring decimals as fractions:

Ex: 1.7777777…..
Let x = 1.77777
10x = 17.77777
10x - x = 17.7777 - 1.777777
9x = 16
X = 16/9

Different irrational numbers can be compared to like different variables. Only those
rational numbers which have the same radicand and root can be added and
subtracted ( 2 can be subtracted from 2 2, not 2 3)
● The sum and difference of a rational and irrational number is irrational
● The product and quotient of a rational and irrational number is irrational
● The sum, product, difference and quotient of two irrationals may be rational
The algebraic identities can be used in operations on irrational numbers similarly
Rationalization of the denominator is the conversion of an irrational number in the
denominator with another irrational number on both sides such that it becomes
rational at the bottom.
Ex: rationalize 1/ 2 and 1/2 + 3
1 1𝑥 2 2
1. = = 2
2 2𝑥 2
1 1 𝑥 (2− 3) 2− 3
2. = = 4−3
= 2− 3 (since (a+b)(a-b) = a2-b2)
2+ 3 (2+ 3)(2− 3)

Linear Equations in Two Variables

Linear equations in two variables are of the form ax + by + c = 0 where a,b and c are
all real numbers and a and b are not zero. Solution of a linear equation is not
affected when the same number is added, subtracted, multiplied or divided on both
sides of the equation.
The solution of an equation are two values that satisfy x and y such that ax+by+c = 0
The linear equation ax+b = 0 can also be written as ax + 0y + b = 0
A linear equation in two variables has infinite solutions

To plot an equation on the graph, you must input a value for x and find its
corresponding y value, take them as an ordered pair, join the points and make a line.
A linear equation always makes a straight line on a graph. If y = any non zero
number k, then the graph will be parallel to the x axis and if x = any non zero number
k, then graph will be parallel to the y axis

Lines and angles

If 3 or more points lie on the same line, they are collinear, else they would be
non-collinear points. Two angles whose sum is 90 degrees are complimentary, while
those whose sum is 180 degrees are supplementary.

Axioms (No proof necessary)

Axiom 1 - A ray on a line forms two angles whose sum is equal to 180 degrees (Linear
pair axiom)
Axiom 2 - If two angles are supplementary, then their non-common arms lie on a line
(Converse)

Theorems (Proof required)

Theorem 1 - If two lines intersect each other, then the vertically opposite angles are
equal (VOA theorem)
Proof: Let <AOC = x

On line AB:
By linear pair axiom:
<COB = 180- <AOC = 180-x — 1

On line CD:
<AOD = 180 - <AOC = 180 - x — 2
<DOB = 180 - <AOD = 180 - (180-x) = 180-180+x = x

From 1 and 2:

<AOD = 180 - x = < COB

→ <AOD = <COB

Similarly <DOB = x = <AOC

→ <DOB = <AOC

Hence the proof

Theorem 2 - Lines parallel to the same line are

parallel to each other

Proof: Construct l||m and m||n

We know that <1 = <2 (Corresponding angles)

Similarly <3 = <2 (Corresponding angles)
So <1 = <2 =<3
→ <1 = <3
→ m||n

Hence the proof

Note: Applications of concepts from previous years related to parallel lines and
transversals will be tested for the exams, but you will not need to prove them.
Concepts like corresponding angles, Alternate angles and so on are crucial to
answer questions for this chapter

Triangles
Two figures are said to be congruent if they cover each other completely when
superimposed on one of the figures.

Congruency Criteria for triangles:

SSS - All three sides are equal to the corresponding 3 sides of another triangle
SAS - Two sides and an included angle are equal to the corresponding two sides
and included angle of another triangle
ASA - Two angles and an included side are equal to the corresponding two angles
and included side of another triangle
AAS - Two angles and a non-included side are equal to the corresponding two
angles and non-included side of another triangle
RHS - The hypotenuse and one side of a right triangle are equal to the
corresponding hypotenuse and side of another right triangle

Theorem 1 - Angles opposite to equal sides of an isosceles triangle are equal

Construction: Draw an isosceles triangle ABC and

construct a bisector AD to <A
Given: AB = AC, <BAD = <CAD
To prove: < ABC = <ACB
Proof:

AB = AC (Given)
AD = AD (Common)
<BAD = CAD (AD bisects <A)

By SAS criterion, ΔABD = VACD

→ <ABD = <ACD by CPCT
→ <ABC = <ACB

Hence the proof

Theorem 2 - The sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal (For proof
use the same concept as above except instead of equal sides use equal angles and
AAS theorem)

(There seems to be much less theory for triangles, so please check all the questions
and examples given in the textbook as well. Trust me, triangles is not an easy
chapter)

Quadrilaterals
Properties of parallelograms

Theorem 1 - The diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles

Proof:
Construct diagonal AC

Given AB||BD and AD||CB:

<DAC = <BCA (Alternate interior
angles)
<DCA = <BAC (Alternate interior angles)
AC = AC (Common)

→ ΔABC is congruent to ΔCDA by ASA

Hence the proof

Theorem 2 and 3- Opposite sides of a quadrilateral are equal

If each pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral is equal, then it is a
parallelogram
Proof: Already we have proven above that ΔABC is congruent to ΔCDA by ASA, so by
CPCT, AB = CD and AD = BC
Theorem 3 can be proved by simply constructing a quadrilateral with equal
opposite sides and a diagonal and proving congruency using SSS. We then use
CPCT to prove that the opposite angles are equal

Theorem 4 - In a parallelogram, opposite angles are equal

Theorem 5 - If in a quadrilateral opposite angles are equal then it is a
parallelogram.
Theorem 6 - The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other

Proof:
Given AB||CD and AD||BC
Taking DB and AC as transversals:
<ADB = <CBD (Alternate interior
angles)
Similarly,<DOC = <BOA
AD = BC (Given)
→ ΔOAD = ΔOCB by ASA

→ OA = OC, OD = OB (CPCT)
Therefore the diagonals bisect each other
Hence the proof

Theorem 7: If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a

parallelogram
(Proving this requires the same concept as Theorem 6, just use SAS congruency to
prove each pair of opposite sides are equal)

Other properties of quadrilaterals:

● Angles lying on the same line in a parallelogram are supplementary
● The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other and are perpendicular
● Diagonals of a square are equal, bisect each other at right angles
● Square, rhombus, rectangle all posses the properties of parallelograms
Midpoint Theorem

The line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
third side

Proof:
Construct a triangle ABC and join the midpoints of sides AB and AC to form DE.
Extend DE to a point F such that DE = EF and join C to F

Given: AE = EC, AD = BD (Midpoints)

To prove: DE||BC, DE = ½ BC
Proof:

AE = EC (Given)
<AED = <CEF (VOA)
DE = EF(by construction)
Therefore, ΔAED = ΔCEF by SAS

→ <CFE = <ADE, <FCE = <DAE

→ FC = AD (CPCT)

But these are alternate interior

angles
So CF||AD taking AC and DF as their
transversals

CF = AD
But AD = BD
So CF = BD

Therefore BDFC is a parallelogram (one pair of sides are equal and parallel)

Therefore, BC || DF and BC = DF
But DF = DE + EF = 2DE (since EF = DE)
So BC = 2DE
→ ½ BC = DE

Hence the proof

Converse
The line drawn through the midpoint of one side of a triangle parallel to another
side bisects the third side

Proof:
Extend DE to F and join CF such that CF||BD

CF||BD (By construction)

DF||BC (Given)
Therefore BDFC is a parallelogram

→ CF = BD
But BD = AD
So CF = AD

<AED = <CEF (VOA)

<ADE = <CFE (Alternate interior angles since
AB||CF)
CF = AD (Proven above)

Therefore, ΔAED = ΔCEF

→ AE = CE by CPCT

But AE + CE = AC
And AE = CE
So AC = 2AE = 2CE

Therefore the line bisects AC

Hence the proof

Heron’s formula
● Area of triangle - ½ bh
● Heron’s formula - 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) where a,b and c are the sides and s is
the semi-perimeter
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
● S (semi-perimeter) - 2
3 2
● Area of equilateral triangle - 4
𝑎 , where a is the side of the triangle

Statistics
Bar graphs are pictorial representations of data where bars of uniform width are
drawn with equal spacing/ X-axis depicts the variable and y-axis depicts its value.

Constructing a bar graph:

To construct a bar graph, use a legend to clarify how much of a variable is
represented by one unit. The values and variables along the y and x axis must also
be labelled. Equal widths must be maintained between each bar

Histograms are similar to bar graphs, but they do not have any spacing and are
used to represent continuous class intervals
Constructing a histogram:
To construct a bar graph, denote the class intervals on the x axis. If the first class
interval does not start from zero, a kink is used to create a break in the axis.
We then draw rectangles for the classes whose width is equal to the class size and
length equal to their frequency.

If given class sizes are not equal, then length of a class interval =
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝐶𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Formula to make discontinuous class intervals continuous -

𝐿𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑈𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠
2
The value obtained from the above formula is then added to the UCL of every class
and subtracted from the LCL of every class (UCL - Upper class limit, LCL - Lower
class limit)

Ex: Make the classes 150-152, 154-156- 158-160 continuous

Consider the classes 150-152 and 154-156

UCL of 150-152 = 152
LCL of 154-156 = 142
Therefore adjustment factor = 154-142/2 = 2/2 = 1

So, adjusted class intervals = (150-1)-(152+1),(154-1)-(156+1),(158-1)-(160+1)

= 149-153,153-157,157-161

A frequency polygon is another way to represent data. It is essentially a line graph

that has been connected to the x-axis

How to construct a frequency polygon:

1. With a histogram
To do this, you have to join the midpoints of each class interval to each other with a
line. To complete the polygon, we create two more class intervals on each side
having a frequency of zero and join them to finish the polygon. If the first class
begins directly from 0, we create an imaginary class interval on the negative x-axis
and join that

2. Without a histogram
To create a frequency polygon without a histogram, find out the class marks of the
given class intervals in the data
𝑈𝐶𝐿+𝐿𝐶𝐿
Class mark = 2
These class marks are then used to represent a class interval, and they are plotted
onto a graph. Respective frequencies are given to the class marks, and finally we join
all the points including the imaginary zero class intervals before and after the given
data to obtain a frequency polygon
Frequency polygons are used when the data is large and continuous, it can be used
to compare two sets of data at the same time