Environment

The word environment means every thing that surrounds us. It includes both living
(biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components as well as their interaction with each other. It
has been divided into four major components i.e. atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and
biosphere. Atmosphere is the gaseous envelop around us. The study of atmosphere includes
the study of gaseous components and their interaction with each other. Lithosphere deals with
the study of solids in the atmosphere and is also called geosphere. Hydrosphere studies water
in all its forms in the environment and finally biosphere deals with the study of life in all
forms.
Atmosphere
The gaseous envelope present around us is called atmosphere. Atmosphere provides
oxygen for respiration, carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and Nitrogen for nitrogen fixing
bacteria. It protects the earth surface from the hazardous rays produced by the sun like
cosmic and UV radiations. It plays vital role in the heat balance on the earth.
Mass of the atmosphere is approximately 5.14x1015 matric tonnes and almost 90% of
this mass lies near to earth in the first layer of the atmosphere. Current
molecular composition of Earth’s atmosphere is nitrogen (N2), 78.08%, oxygen (O2), 20.95
%, argon (Ar), 0.93 %, water vapours (H20), about 0 to 4 %, and carbon dioxide (CO2), 0.04
%. Inert gases such as neon (Ne), helium (He), krypton (Kr) and other constituents such as
nitrogen oxides, compounds of sulfur, and compounds of ozone are found in lesser amounts.
Classification of Atmosphere
Before the discovery of rocket atmosphere was divided into two main layers i.e. lower
atmosphere (50KM) and outer atmosphere (above 50 KM). Later on it was divided into
homosphere and heterosphere. Present day classification divides atmosphere on the basis of
temperature change with change in height.
Inversion of temperature and Lapse Rate
Change in temperature with change in the height of atmosphere is called inversion of
temperature or thermal inversion. Inversion near the surface of the earth plays vital role in the
formation of clouds, precipitation and dew formation at the night. Due to its effects in the
mentioned atmospheric phenomenon it plays vital role in weather change.
The rate at which temperature changes in the atmosphere with change in the height is
called lapse rate. Lapse rate may either be positive or negative. In positive lapse rate
temperature increases with increase in height and vice versa.

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 Various layers of the atmosphere on the basis of temperature change with change in
height of the atmosphere are discussed below.
Troposphere
This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. it ranges from the
surface of the earth to 11 km in height. It contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow.
In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance above the earth
increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre. The actual change of temperature with height varies
from day to day, depending on the weather.
The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all
of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with height
is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands (because of
the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up is cooler than air lower
down.
Stratosphere (15-50 km)
This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the
ozone in the atmosphere that is why this layer is also called ozonosphere. Temperature in this
layer of the atmosphere increases with increase in height. This increase in temperature with
height occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone.

Mesosphere
The mesosphere extends from the stratopause (the upper boundary of the stratosphere)
to about 85 kilometres above the surface of the Earth. Here, temperatures again begin to fall.
The mesosphere is the least-understood part of Earth’s atmosphere. It is too high for aircraft
or weather balloons to operate, but too low for spacecraft. Sounding rockets have provided
meteorologists and astronomers their only significant data on this important part of the
atmosphere.
The Thermosphere and Ionosphere
The thermosphere lies above the mesophere, and is a region in which temperatures
again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic
ultraviolet and X-Ray radiations from the sun.
The region of the atmosphere above 80 km is called the "ionosphere", since the
energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions"
with a positive charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day
and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons, which are present.

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Ionosphere is the place where International Space Station (ISS) and Hubble telescope
revolves around the earth.
Exosphere
Exosphere starts at height of 500 KM above troposphere. It contains mainly oxygen
and hydrogen atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide with each other.
Due to very high temperature some of them escape right out into space.
Hydrosphere
Water present in any form in environment is called hydrosphere. Water occurs in all
three forms i.e. solid, liquids and gas. In solid form it is present in the form of snow in ice
caps and glaciers. In liquid state water is present in oceans, lakes, rivers and underground
water. Clouds and water vapours in environment represent the gaseous state of water.
Water is the most abundant substance on the surface of Earth. About 1.4 billion cubic
km of water in liquid and frozen form make up the oceans, lakes, streams, glaciers, and
ground waters. It is this enormous volume of water, in its various manifestations, that forms
the discontinuous layer, enclosing much of the terrestrial surface, known as the hydrosphere.
Central to any discussion of the hydrosphere is the concept of the water cycle (or
hydrologic cycle). This cycle consists of a group of reservoirs containing water, the processes
by which water is transferred from one reservoir to another (or transformed from one state to
another), and the rates of transfer associated with such processes. These transfer paths
penetrate the entire hydrosphere, extending upward to about 15 km in Earth’s atmosphere and
downward to depths on the order of 5 km in its crust.

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Distribution of water in Hydrosphere
Earth has about 1.386 billion cubic kilometres of water. 97% of this water is present
in ocean. Oceans water has high concentration of salts in it and hence cannot be directly
consumed by humans. More than 2% is present in the form of ice caps and glaciers, 1% is
present in the form of lakes, rivers and ground water. Of all the water present in the
hydrosphere only 3% is fresh water, which can be consumed directly by humans for its
various purposes. It should be clear here that almost 66% of fresh water is locked in the form
of glaciers and ice capes, 30% is present in the form of underground water and 1.2% is
present is surface water. 0.9% of the land water is present in the form of vapours and soil
water and the rest 0.3% is available for direct use for humans.

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LITHOSPHERE
Lithosphere is the upper surface of the earth on which humans live. It includes the
outer mantle and the crust. Earth is divided into solid iron-rich inner core, molten outer core,
mantle, and crust. Lithosphere is restricted to the outer mantle and the crust. Lithosphere is
mostly made up of rocks, which is the combination of minerals. These minerals in the rock
may be same or they may be the combination of different minerals held together by strong
attractive forces.

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic solids with specific shape and composition.
These are classified according to their chemical composition and physical appearance.
Different minerals may have the same composition and vice versa. Appearance of minerals in
the reflecting light is called its luster, which may be metallic, cloudy, transparent or pearly.
Although over 2000 minerals are known, only about 25 rock-forming minerals make up most
of the Earth’s crust.

STRUCTURE OF EARTH

As discussed earlier earth is divisible into core, mantle and crust. The inner of the
earth is quite different from its outer hard surface. Earth inner part is mostly in movement and
this movement is often seen in the form of volcanoes coming out of the earth inner part or the
tsunami waves produced by the oceans. Tectonic theory is the most valid theory that explains
composition of the earth and its other major properties. Three layers of earth namely core,
mantle and crust are discussed as below.

Core

It is the innermost portion of the earth, which lies at a depth of about 2900 KMs from

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the surface of the earth. Its radius is approximately 3485 KMs. Core is subdivided into inner
and outer core. The inner core is solid in nature while the outer one is liquid. It is mostly
made up of Iron and Nickel along with Sulphur. It constitutes 16% of the total earth’s
volume. Inner core is the hottest of all the layers of the earth with a temperature range of
4400oC to 6000oC. Outer core is responsible for the magnetic properties of earth. Earth’s
magnetic field is crucial for life on earth as it protects earth from charged particles in its
surrounding space.

Mantle

Mantle is the thickest of Earth’s layers and takes up 83% of Earth’s volume. It
extends down to about 2900 km from the crust to Earth’s core and is largely composed of a
dark, dense, igneous rock called ‘peridotite’, containing iron and magnesium. The mantle has
three distinct layers: a lower, solid layer; the asthenosphere, which behaves plastically and
flows slowly; and a solid upper layer. Partial melting within the asthenosphere generates
magma (molten material), some of which rises to the surface because it is less dense than the
surrounding material. The upper mantle and the crust make up the lithosphere, which is
broken up into pieces called ‘plates’, which move over the asthenosphere. The interaction of
these plates is responsible for earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and the formation of mountain
ranges and ocean basins.

Crust

Crust is the outermost layer of earth where all the life exists. Major elements present
in the earth crust are Oxygen (49.5%), Silicon (25.7%), and other (1.6%). It is 40 kilometers
thick and is only 1% of the total earth mass. Basic types of rocks present in the earth crust are
metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary. Most abundant of these is igneous which is formed
by the cooling of magma. Slate and marble are the examples
Layer Width Temperature
of metamorphic rocks, which are formed by high heat and
(KMs) (oC)
pressure in the crust. Sedimentary rocks are formed on the
surface of the earth by the accumulation of different Core 3485 6000
materials e.g. sandstone and shale. Mantle 2900 3500
Earth crust present in the ocean is called
Crust 15-20 1000
oceanic crust. It is located at a depth of 5-10 KMs from the
ocean surface. Rocks present in the oceanic crust are called “sima” which contains Silicates
and Magnesium only. Other type of earth crust is continental crust, which is composed of

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different types of granites.

Different layers present in Earth

SOIL

Soil, a variable mixture of minerals, organic matter, and water capable of

supporting plant life on the earth’s surface, is the most fundamental requirement for
agriculture. It is the final product of the weathering action of physical, chemical, and
biological processes on rocks, which largely produces clay minerals. The organic portion of
soil consists of plant biomass in various stages of decay. High populations of bacteria, fungi,
and animals such as earthworms may be found in soil. Soil contains air spaces and generally
has a loose texture.

The solid fraction of typical productive soil is approximately 5% organic

matter and 95% inorganic matter. Some soils, such as peat soils, may contain as much as 95%
organic materials. Other soils contain as little as 1% organic matter.

Typical soils exhibit distinctive layers called horizons, with increasing depth.
Horizons form as a result of complex interactions among processes that occur during
weathering. Rainwater percolating through soil carries dissolved and colloidal solids to lower
horizons where they are deposited. Biological processes, such as bacterial decay of residual
plant biomass, produce slightly acidic CO2, organic acids, and complex compounds that are
carried by rainwater to lower horizons where they interact with clays and other minerals,
altering the properties of the minerals. The top layer of soil, typically several inches in

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thickness, is known as the A horizon, or topsoil. This is the layer of maximum biological
activity in the soil, contains most of the soil organic matter, and is essential for plant
productivity. Various soils may have a variety of horizons, the main ones of which are
described in figure as;

Fig: Soil profile showing different layers

Soils exhibit a large variety of characteristics that are used for their classification for
various purposes, including crop production, road construction, and waste disposal. The
parent rocks from which soils are formed obviously play a strong role in determining the
composition of soils. Other soil characteristics include strength, workability, soil particle size,
permeability, and degree of maturity.

RESOURCES OF SOIL

When it comes to resources soil is as important as water. It acts as anchor for the roots
of plants and also provides essential nutrients that it normal development. Soil is a natural
body which is formed by the combined influence of climate, topography, organisms and
parent material. It is non-renewable resource of food, medicines, ecosystem services and fuel.
On the basis of volume soil consists of three phases i.e. solid, liquid and gas with general
ratio of 2:1:1.

Chemical substances in soil

Most of the soil solid materials are inorganic in nature containing mineral matter.
These minerals may be crystalline or amorphous in nature. Their size varies from gigantic
rocks to the very small crystals in the soil. Organic matter forms only 1-5% of the solids in
soil. It plays vital role in the ecosystem. It is the native source of Nitrogen, sulphur and
phosphorous in the soil. Their presence in the soil effects water, air and temperature of the

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soil, which in turn have great impact on different plant processes.

Soil Air

Soil air is different from atmospheric air. It is controlled by the respiration rate of
roots and soil organisms. CO2 in soil is 10 times greater than atmosphere. When the gas
exchange is restricted the value of CO2 can reach to over 10 % and O2 value can decrease
from 10% which will restrict the plant growth along with other soil organisms. Soil air is also
affected by water in soil, high concentration of water decrease the concentration of air in soil
and vice versa.

Soil water

Soil must have enough amount of water to meet the needs of plants for normal
growth. It helps in carrying soil nutrients to the plants. Water also has a role in soil formation.
Water balance of soil depends on rainfall, surface runoff, infiltration and losses from soil in
the form of vapours. Soil with optimum moisture has better plant growth due to easy
absorption by plants through capillary action.

It may be noted that the plants get nutrients from soil and water acts as a medium to
make these nutrients available for absorption. Soil water contains dissolved plant nutrients,
which are obtained by plants through exchange phenomenon. Concentration of soluble salts
in soil water has a direct role in plant nutrition; nevertheless salt content exceeding the
threshold limit renders the soil unproductive. Example is the saline soil.
Environmental pollution

Pollutant is any physical, chemical or biological thing that has negative impact on
plants and animals. These pollutants may also be any kind of energy that effects the normal
temperature of earth. Pollutants are added faster to the environment than the rate at which
they can be dissipated by it. These components destroy the natural parameters of air, water
and soil. Our modern day world is even concerned about new form of pollutions like light
pollution, noise pollution and plastic pollution.

History

Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events such as forest

fires and active volcanoes, use of the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants
have an anthropogenic source i.e. a source created by human activities. Pollution has
accompanied humankind ever since groups of people first congregated and remained for a

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long time in any one place. Indeed, ancient human settlements are frequently recognized by
their wastes. Pollution was not a serious problem as long as there was enough space available
for each individual or group. However, with the establishment of permanent settlements by
great numbers of people, pollution became a problem, and it has remained one ever since.

Cities of ancient times were often noxious places, fouled by human wastes and debris.
Beginning about 1000 CE, the use of coal for fuel caused considerable air pollution, and the
conversion of coal to coke for iron smelting beginning in the 17th century exacerbated the
problem. In Europe, from the Middle Ages well into the early modern era, unsanitary urban
conditions favoured the outbreak of population-decimating epidemics of disease, from plague
to cholera and typhoid fever. Through the 19th century, water and air pollution and the
accumulation of solid wastes were largely problems of congested urban areas. But, with the
rapid spread of industrialization and the growth of the human population to unprecedented
levels, pollution became a universal problem.

By the middle of the 20th century, an awareness of the need to protect air, water, and
land environments from pollution had developed among the general public. In particular, the
publication in 1962 of Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring focused attention on
environmental damage caused by improper use of pesticides such as DDT and other
persistent chemicals that accumulate in the food chain and disrupt the natural balance
of ecosystems on a wide scale. In response, major pieces of environmental legislation, such
as the Clean Air Act (1970) and the Clean Water Act (1972; United States), were passed in
many countries to control and mitigate environmental pollution.

Classification of pollutants

There are many ways by which pollutants can be classified some of these are
discussed as below.

Persistent and non-persistent pollutants

This classification is done on the basis of existence of pollutants in the environment

for certain time. Persistent pollutants can remain for very long time in the environment
without any change in its chemical nature, e.g. pesticides, nuclear wastes and plastics.

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Non-persistent pollutants can’t remain for very long time in the environment and degrades to
produce new materials in the environment, e.g. chlorinated hydrocarbons and
organophosphates etc.

Primary and secondary pollutants

This classification divides pollutants on the basis of their existence in the environment
and their mode of action. According to this classification primary pollutants can remain in its
original form in the environment and directly effect it, e.g. DDT and plastics. Secondary
pollutants on the other hand are those, which are produced by the combination of other
chemicals, which may or may not be toxic to the environment, e.g. per-acetyl nitrate PAN.

Quantitative and qualitative pollutants

Quantitative pollutants are the one that are already present in the system but their
quantity is increased by man above threshold value e.g. CO2. On the other hand qualitative
pollutants are those which if added in very small quantity to the environment could have
drastic effects on it, e.g. heavy metals

Artificial and natural pollutants

Natural pollutants are those pollutants which are added to the environment by natural
phenomenons. For example addition of oxides of Sulphur due to volcanic eruptions. Artificial
or anthropogenic pollutants are added to environment by man.

Biodegradable and non-biodegradable pollutants

Biodegradable pollutants are the ones, which can be degraded by micro-organisms in

the environment while non-biodegradable can’t be degraded by micro-organisms

Sources of pollutants

Like types of pollutants there are also different sources of pollutants. Here we will
only discuss point and non-point sources of pollution.

Point sources of pollution are the ones, which are stationary and hence remain fixed to
a specific area e.g. industries and nuclear power plants. Non-point sources on the other hand
are mobile ones. Automobile is the most common example of non-point source of pollution

Air pollution

Any thing that effects the normal parameters of air is called air pollutant and the
phenomenon is known as air pollution. Pollutant may either be primary or secondary.

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Primary pollutants are the ones that directly effect the air quality while secondary ones
combine with other chemicals to effect the air quality.

Clean, dry air consists primarily of nitrogen and oxygen—78% and 21% respectively,
by volume. The remaining 1% is a mixture of other gases, mostly argon (0.9 %), along with
trace (very small) amounts of carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen, helium, and more. Water
vapour is also a normal, though quite variable, component of the atmosphere, normally
ranging from 0.01 to 4% by volume; under very humid conditions the moisture content of air
may be as high as 5%.

The gaseous air pollutants of primary concern in urban settings include Sulphur
Dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and carbon monoxide; these are emitted directly into the air
from fossil fuels such as fuel oil, gasoline, and natural gas that are burned in power plants,
automobiles, and other combustion sources. Ozone (a key component of smog) is also a
gaseous pollutant; it forms in the atmosphere via complex chemical reactions occurring
between nitrogen dioxide and various volatile organic compounds (e.g., gasoline vapours).

Airborne suspensions of extremely small solid or liquid particles called “particulates”

(e.g., soot, dust, smokes, fumes, mists), especially those less than 10 micrometres in size, are
significant air pollutants because of their very harmful effects on human health. Various
industrial processes, for example, coal- or oil-burning power plants, residential heating
systems, and automobiles, emit them. Lead fumes are particularly toxic and are an important
pollutant of many diesel fuels. Some of the very important air pollutants and their effects on
environment as well as on human health are tabulated in table 1.

Major air pollutants that have sever effects on environment and on human life are
discussed as below.

Carbon monoxide (CO)

It is a colorless, odorless gas emitted from combustion processes, specifically, the

incomplete combustion of fuel. Nationally and, particularly in urban areas, the majority of
CO emissions to ambient air come from mobile sources. Effects of CO on humans depend on
its concentration and time of exposure to it. It can cause harmful health effects by reducing
oxygen delivery to the body's organs (like the heart and brain) and tissues. At extremely high
levels, CO can cause death.

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 Table 1: list of common pollutants and their effects on environment and on human
health

Pollutant Common Sources Environmental Effect on human’s health

Risks

Carbon monoxide Automobile Contributes to Reduce O2 carrying capacity of Hb,

(CO) emissions, fires, smog formation headache, unconsciousness, shortness
industrial processes of breath

Nitrogen oxides Automobile Damage to Inflammation and irritation of

emissions, foliage; breathing passages
electricity contributes to
generation, smog formation
industrial processes

Sulphur oxides Electricity Major cause of Breathing difficulties, particularly for

generation, fossil- haze; acid rain people with asthma and heart disease
fuel combustion, formation,

ozone (O3) Nitrogen oxides Interferes with Reduced lung function; irritation and
(NOx) and volatile the ability of inflammation of breathing passages
organic compounds certain plants to
(VOCs) from respire, leading
industrial and to increased
automobile susceptibility to
emissions, gasoline other
vapours, chemical environmental
solvents, and stressors (e.g.,
electrical utilities disease, harsh
weather)

Oxides of Sulphur (SOx)

Oxides of sulphur mainly includes sulphur oxide (SO) and sulphur dioxide (SO2).
These oxides are produced by power generating plants and very little is produced by
automobiles. Sulphur oxides mainly cause irritation in the eyes and in the respiratory system

13
of humans. These oxides can combine with water of rain producing sulphuric acid, which is
the main constituent of acid rain. Acid rain not only effect humans and plants but it also has
severe effect on buildings.

Nitrogen oxides (NOX)

Of the several forms of nitrogen oxides, nitrogen dioxide—a pungent, irritating gas—
is of most concern. It is known to cause pulmonary edema, an accumulation of excessive
fluid in the lungs. Nitrogen dioxide also reacts in the atmosphere to form nitric acid,
contributing to the problem of acid rain. In addition, nitrogen dioxide plays a role in the
formation of photochemical smog, a reddish brown haze that often is seen in many urban
areas and that is created by sunlight-promoted reactions in the lower atmosphere.

Nitrogen oxides are formed when combustion temperatures are high enough to cause
molecular nitrogen in the air to react with oxygen. Stationary sources such as coal-burning
power plants are major contributors of this pollutant, although gasoline engines and other
mobile sources are also significant.

OZONE

Ozone is colourless gas with a slight sweet smell. It is produced as a result of complex
chemical reaction between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight. It is
key component in photochemical smog. Ozone causes breathing problems in humans and
effect the young shoots produced by plants. It has severe effect on rubber materials. Vehicle
tyres in cities with heavy traffic and high temperature in the summer days have very short life
span due to ground level ozone formation.

Lead

Inhaled lead particulates in the form of fumes and dusts are particularly harmful to
children, in whom even slightly elevated levels of lead in the blood can cause learning
disabilities, seizures, or even death. Sources of airborne lead particulates include oil
refining, smelting, and other industrial activities. In the past, combustion of gasoline
containing a lead-based antiknock additive called tetraethyl lead (TEL) and tetramethyl lead
(TML) were major sources of lead particulates. In many countries there is now a complete
ban on the use of lead in gasoline.

Air toxics

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 Hundreds of specific substances are considered hazardous when present in trace
amounts in the air. These pollutants are called air toxics. Many of them cause genetic
mutations or cancer; some cause other types of health problems, such as adverse effects on
brain tissue or fetal development. Although the total emissions and the number of sources of
air toxics are small compared with those for criteria pollutants, these pollutants can pose an
immediate health risk to exposed individuals and can cause other environmental problems.

Most air toxics are organic chemicals, comprising molecules that

contain carbon, hydrogen, and other atoms. Many are volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
organic compounds that readily evaporate. VOCs include pure hydrocarbons, partially
oxidized hydrocarbons, and organic compounds containing Chlorine, Sulfur, or Nitrogen.
They are widely used as fuels (e.g., propane and gasoline), as paint thinners and solvents, and
in the production of plastics. In addition to contributing to air toxicity and urban smog, some
VOC emissions act as greenhouse gases and, in so doing, may be a cause of global warming.
Some other air toxics are metals or compounds of metals—for example, mercury, arsenic,
and cadmium.

SMOG

Smog is the combination of smoke and fog. The word originally was used to describe
the unpleasant combination of smoke and fog laced with sulfur dioxide which was formerly
prevalent in London when high-sulfur coal was the primary fuel used in that city. Smog
formation is most common in urban areas with heavy traffic or industries in the nearby areas.

Smoggy conditions are characterized by irritation in the eyes, nose and throat with
decrease visibility. The formation of oxidants in the air, particularly ozone, is indicative of
smog formation. Smog may either be photochemical smog or industrial smog.

Industrial smog also known as sulphurous smog is produced when large quantities of
oxides of Sulphur are produced by burning fossil fuels especially coal. Industrial smog also
contains huge amount of suspended particles and CO. Both these gases are asphyxiating ones
and can cause severe breathing problems. Sulphur dioxide further oxidizes to sulphur
trioxide, which on combination with water produces sulphuric acid.

S+O2 SO2
SO2 + O2 SO3
SO3 +H2O H2SO4

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Sulphuric acid thus produced has devastating effects both on humans and other components
of the environment.

Photochemical smog is produced when UV radiations in sunlight initiates reaction

between NOx and hydrocarbons produced mainly by automobiles. Combination of these two
chemicals results in the formation of ozone, which is the key element in photochemical smog.

In 1952 during the winter season in London people used huge amount of sulphur
containing coal. The effect of this burning was the formation of sulphurous smog a reducing
type of smog, that killed over 4000 peoples. It was after this devastating effect that lead the
British government to pass Clean Air Act in 1956. Main purpose of this act was to reduce the
production of substances that could lead to London type of killer smog.

At about the same time that the London smog conditions were being described, a
different type of smog was observed in the United States, in Los Angeles, California, and
surrounding areas. This smog contained Nitrogen Oxide a key component of oxidizing smog
and hydrocarbons and ozone. This smog was observed in June 1943 and initially was thought
to be “gas attack” by the Japanese as World War II was in full swing at that particular time.
Acid Rain

Acid rain is any kind of precipitation that has pH lower than 5.6. It can occur in the
form of rain, snow, dew or fog. Natural rain has a pH of 5.6 due to the absorption of CO2
from the air resulting in the formation of a weak acid called carbonic acid. Acid rain is
mainly formed due to high amount of sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide in air that when
combines with water produces sulphuric acid and nitric acids respectively. Both these acids
are strong acids and they results in lowering of pH of rain water. Sulphur oxides and Nitrogen
oxides are mainly the outcomes of burning fossil fuel.

Acid rain has devastating effects on humans, plants, animals, marine water and
architecture. Some of these effects are listed as below

Ø Excessive acid concentration destroys the young plants along with higher trees as it
reduces the rate of photosynthesis

Ø Excessive leaching of essential nutrients from the soil that are required for the
normal growth of plants

Ø In humans it effects the skin, hairs and respiration rate. It can also effect the
respiration rate in other animals

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 Ø It acidified the lakes and rivers and make it unfit for the growth of marine plants and
animals

Ø Corrosion of exposed structures, electrical relays, equipment, and ornamental

materials. Because of the effect of hydrogen ion

Ø Limestone is especially susceptible to damage from acid rain.

Ø Acid fog particularly particles of Sulphur dioxide and Sulphur trioxide reduces the
visibility by 50-70%

Classification of water on the basis of quality

Water quality can be classified into four types—potable water, palatable water,
contaminated (polluted) water, and infected water. The most common scientific definitions of
these types of water quality are as follows:
1. Potable water: It is safe to drink, pleasant to taste, and usable for domestic purposes
2. Palatable water: It is aesthetically pleasing; it considers the presence of chemicals that do
not cause a threat to human health.
3. Contaminated (polluted) water: It is that water containing unwanted physical, chemical,
biological, or radiological substances, and it is unfit for drinking or domestic use.
4. Infected water: It is contaminated with pathogenic organism.
Parameters for water quality
There are three types of water quality parameters i.e. physical, chemical, and
biological. They are briefly discussed below
PHYSCICAL PARAMETERS
Turbidity
Turbidity is the cloudiness of water. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass
through water. Suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other
particulate materials in water cause it. Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically
unacceptable.

Temperature

Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are

influenced by temperature. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most
palatable.

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Total solids in water
It is the total number of solids present in water. These solids may either be in
suspended form (TSS) in water or they may be in dissolved form (TDS). Clean water has no
TSS or TDS.
Other physical parameters for water quality are colour, odour and taste. Pure water has no
colour, odour or taste.
CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
Various chemical parameters that defines water quality are discussed as below
pH:
It is the most important parameter of water quality. pH of water tells about the amount
of H+ ion and OH- ion in water. Pure water has equal number of H+ and OH- ions in it (pH=7).
Water with high concentration of Hydrogen ion is acidic (pH<7) in nature while the one with
high concentration of OH in it basic (pH>7) in nature. Rainwater has a pH value of 5.6,
which is slightly acidic due to the presence of atmospheric CO2 in it. Water with very low or
high pH is fatal. A pH below 4 and above 10 will kill most of the fish, and very few animals
can tolerate water with pH lower than 3 and above 11.
Acidity and Alkalnity
Acidity and basicity of water represents the amount of acid or base present in water.
acidity of water is mainly caused by CO2 produced due to respiration by the zooplanktons.
CO2 combines with water and produce a weak acid called carbonic acid. Acids can influence
many processes such as corrosion, chemical reactions and biological activities.

Alkalinity of water is mainly caused by the presence of hydroxide ions (OH−),

bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), and carbonate ions (CO32−), or a mixture of two of these ions in
water. These alkaline substances are added to water by lime rocks and other soda containing
rocks.

The high levels of either acidity or alkalinity in water may be an indication of

industrial or chemical pollution. Alkalinity or acidity can also occur from natural sources
such as volcanoes. The acidity and alkalinity in natural waters provide a buffering action that
protects fish and other aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH. For instance, if an
acidic chemical has somehow contaminated a lake that had natural alkalinity, a neutralization
reaction occurs between the acid and alkaline substances; the pH of the lake water remains
unchanged. For the protection of aquatic life, the buffering capacity should be at least 20

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mg/L as calcium carbonate.

Chlorides

Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of
relatively high chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate
wastewater pollution. Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources including
chloride-containing rock, agricultural runoff, and wastewater.

Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do not cause any harmful effects on public health,
but high concentrations can cause an unpleasant salty taste for most people. Chlorides are not
usually harmful to people; however, the sodium part of table salt has been connected to
kidney and heart diseases. Small amounts of chlorides are essential for ordinary cell functions
in animal and plant life.

Sodium chloride may impart a salty taste at 250 mg/L; however, magnesium or
calcium chloride are generally not detected by taste until reaching levels of 1000 mg/L.
Standards for public drinking water require chloride levels that do not exceed 250 mg/L.

Sulfate

Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration
of sulfate in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate
or magnesium sulfate. If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there may be
objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects, but there is no significant danger to public
health.

Iron, Manganese, copper and Zinc

Although iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) do not cause health problems, they impart a
noticeable bitter taste to drinking water even at very low concentration. Iron and Manganese
occur in the form of ions in water, which on exposure to air can be converted, to insoluble
form resulting in turbidity in water.

Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are non-toxic if present in small concentration. Even small
amount of these two if present in water is beneficial to humans, plants and other animals.
Their presence in water imparts unwanted taste for drinking. Zinc when present in high
concentration in water gives it milky appearance.

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Hardness
Hardness of water is produced mainly by calcium and magnesium ions and their salts.
When these minerals are present in water they produce scale deposits in hot water pipes and
curds with soap. Hardness may be temporary or permanent. Temporary hardness is caused by
carbonates and bicarbonates, while permanent hardness is produced by the presence of
sulfates and chlorides. Water with 500 mg/L of hardness is drinkable and can have laxative
effect.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of
water quality in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution. The higher the
concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. For example,
the saturation concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L.
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature,
and salinity of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking
water with very little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.
Biochemical Oxygen demand (BOD):
BOD is the amount of oxygen required by the microorganisms in water to break
organic biodegradable compounds to simple molecules. Bacteria and other microorganisms
use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic material, they consume oxygen.
The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as CO2 and H2O, and the
microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction. Higher the value of BOD
higher will be the concentration of organic materials in the water.
Chemical Oxygen demand (COD)
It is the amount of oxygen required for the oxidizing agents to oxidize compounds
present in water. These compounds may either be organic or inorganic ones. Generally high
value of COD means that large amount of oxygen is required to oxidize the dissolved
components in the water, which indicate high concentration of dissolved materials in the
water.
BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
One of the most helpful indicators of water quality is the presence or lack of certain
living organisms in it. These organisms may either be microorganism or higher complex
organisms. Microorganisms are present every-where in nature even human bodies have a
huge population of microbes in their intestinal tract. Although there are millions of microbes

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per millilitre of waste water, but these remain harmless unless they come in contact with
peoples infected with certain diseases. Some of these microbes and other organisms are
discussed as below;
Bacteria
These are single celled organisms with distinct shapes like rod shaped, sphere shaped
or spiral shape. Under favourable conditions of food supply, temperature, and pH,
bacteria can reproduce so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain 20 million cells per
millilitre after just 1 day. Increase in temperature of water increases the rate of reproduction
of bacteria. A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria, namely, typhoid
and paratyphoid fever, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera.
Algea
Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as
chlorophyll. They are autotrophic organisms and support themselves by converting inorganic
materials into organic matter by using energy from the sun, during this process they take in
carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are also important for wastewater treatment in
stabilization ponds. Algae are primarily nuisance organisms in the water supply because of
the taste and odour problems they create. Certain species of algae cause serious
environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green algae can kill cattle and
other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing those species.

Viruses
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information
necessary for their own reproduction. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic
microscope. Viruses are parasites that need a host to live. They can pass through filters that
do not permit the passage of bacteria. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause
infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis. Most of the waterborne viruses can be deactivated by
the disinfection process conducted in the water treatment plant.

Protozoa

Protozoa are single-celled microscopic animal, consume solid organic

particles, bacteria, and algae for food, and they are in turn ingested as food by higher level
multicellular animals. They form cysts that are difficult to inactivate by disinfection.

Indicator organism

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 A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria
called coliforms. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and
millions are excreted with body wastes. Consequently, water that has been recently
contaminated with sewage will always contain coliforms.

A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is Escherichia coli or E.

coli. Even if the water is only slightly polluted, they are very likely to be found.
There are roughly 3 million of E. coli bacteria in 100 mL volume of untreated
sewage. Coliform bacteria are aggressive organisms and survive in the water longer
than most pathogens.

WATER POLUUTION

Any undesired change in physical, chemical or biological parameters of water is

called water pollution. Water pollutant may be physical, chemical or biological specie. In
past drinking polluted water have killed huge number of peoples that resulted in the
decimation of whole cities. For example the break down of Cholera epidemic in past
vanished many cities in different countries of the world. Luckily these epidemics have been
controlled in recent time but availability of clean drinking water is still major problem for
most of the populations of the world.

Markers of water pollution are substances that show the presence of pollution sources.
These include herbicides indicative of agricultural runoff, fecal coliform bacteria that are
characteristic of pollution from sewage, and pharmaceuticals, pharmaceutical metabolites,
and even caffeine that show contamination by domestic wastewater. Fish are the most
common bio-indicators of water pollution, and fish lipid (fat) tissue is commonly analyzed
for persistent organic water pollutants. Some of the most important water pollutants and theit
impacts are discussed below.

Sewage Wastes

Many countries have no proper tools for the management of wastes that are organic in
nature and are non-biodegradable. These wastes are ultimately added to water channels
without any treatment. These sewages may come from agriculture, which often contains
Nitrogen and phosphorus. Together, sewage and fertilizers can cause a massive increase in
the growth of algae or plankton that facilitate huge areas of oceans, lakes, or rivers creating a

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condition known as algal bloom thereby reducing the dissolved oxygen content of water and
killing other forms of life like fish.

Domestic sewage is the primary source of pathogens and harmful organic substances.
Pathogens are added to water in human feces which threatens the human health. Other
sewages that are added to water channels include detergents, plastics, cleansing agents,
medicines etc. These materials damages the water quality and makes it unfit for normal use.

Industrial Wastes

Industries that are dependent on water for their processes are often situated near to
lakes or rivers. These industries use water in many ways and often release their wastes to
lakes and rivers without any prior treatment. These wastes may contain large amount of
alkalies, acids, dyes and many other hazardous chemicals. For example Fluorides are added
to water by Al manufacturing industries, ammonia is added by fertilizers industries, cyanides
are added by steel industries. All these discharges finally reaches to water that is used by
humans and other animals which effect their lives.

Agro Chemical Wastes

Agro chemical substances are used for the enhancement of agricultural yield. Use of
these substances produces wastes that are added to water channels. These wastes include
fertilizers, pesticides, insecticides, herbicides etc. Some of the pesticides are: DDT, Aldrin,
Dieldrin, Malathion, Hexachloro Benzene etc. Pesticides reach water bodies through surface
runoff from agricultural fields, drifting from spraying, washing down of precipitation and
direct dusting and spraying of pesticides in low lying areas polluting the water quality. Most
of them are non-biodegradable and persistent in the environment for long period of time.
These chemicals may reach human through food chain causing severe health problems.

Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution is the increase in average temperature of water. It is mainly caused

by human activities like using water as coolant in different industries, using water as solvent
for various purposes etc. This water is ultimately then added to water channels where it
changes its average temperature. Change in temperature of water effects all the parameters of
water severe of which is the decrease in concentration of dissolved oxygen. Water with low

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oxygen concentration then effects the aquatic biota.

Oil Spoilage

Oil spoilage to water occurs accident, offshore exploration or leakage of oil tankers.
This residual oil is spread over the surface of water in the form of thin layer. Oil present on
the surface do not allow the passage of atmospheric oxygen to reach the marine plants and
animals thereby affecting its rate of respiration. Similarly it also reduces the rate of
photosynthesis by decreasing the amount of sunlight that penetrates to inside of ocean.

Acid Rain

Acid rain mainly contains Nitric acid and Sulphuric acid. These acids reaches to the
water channel either directly in the form of rain over water reservoirs or they are carried from
the surface with water run off. Addition of acid rain lowers pH of water which has
devastating effect on zooplamktons.

Radioactive Wastes

This type of pollution is caused by the addition of radioactive materials into the water
from nuclear reactors. If small amount of these materials are added to water they are often
neutralized easily but the addition of high amount of radioactive substances can cause
mutation in marine plants and animals.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

Some of the severe effects of water pollution on ecosystem are described as below;

Effects on Humans

Effects of Chemical Substances

Some of the chemicals affecting human health are the presence of heavy metals such as
Fluoride, Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, petrochemicals, chlorinated solvents, pesticides
and nitrates. Fluoride in water is essential for protection against dental carries and weakening
of the bones. But exposure to high level of fluorides results in fluorosis. Arsenic present in
water causes respiratory cancer, bladder problems and lung cancer. Lead present in waste
water effects central nerves system, blood and kidneys. Lead has more devastating effects on

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Childs and pregnant women. Mercury casuses chromosomal aberrations and neurological
problems. Cadmium causes renal dysfunctions and nephrosis.

Water born diseases

Many pathogenic organisms like bacteria and viruses when present in water causes
water born diseases like cholera, typhoid and poliomyelitis etc. Children are specially more
susceptible to water born diseases.

Effect of water pollution on plants

Following are the major effects of water pollution on plant

Ø Water with high acid concentration can directly damage plant tissues
Ø High concentration of acids in water decrease the number of decomposing organisms
in water
Ø Sometimes high concentration of organic materials in water increases the population
of decomposing bacteria in water which helps blue green algae and other related
organisms in eutrophication.
Ø Phosphates present in water due to domestic detergents uses results in retarded plant
growth
Ø Chemicals from agriculture sector added to water changes the water parameters to
devastating level.
Ø Heavy materials added from industries reduce light penetration to water which
decreases the rate of photosynthesis
Ø Oil spoilage into the water channels decreases the concentration of oxygen in water

SOIL POLLUTION

Anything that effects natural parameters of soil is called soil pollutant and the
phenomenon is called soil pollution. Pollutants decrease the natural productivity of soil.
Some of the most common soil pollutants are pesticides, fertilizers, radioactive wastes, paper,
plastics and other hazardous chemical compounds and elements etc.

Agricultural wastes

Improper and continuous use of fertilizers and sprays alters the basic composition of

25
soil. These chemicals accumulate in soil in large quantity and are degraded very slowly by
soil bacteria, which reduces the life and productivity of plants. Sometimes these compounds
degrade to produce even more toxic chemicals, which are added to our food chains.
Nitrification is the basic phenomenon for the conversion of atmospheric Nitrogen to nitrates;
high rate of nitrification can result in the accumulation of nitrates in soil that can then leach
out to water bodies. Some pesticides (DDT, alderines) and fertilizers can be absorbed deep
into the soil, which alters the ground water quality.

Chemical wastes

Industries are the main sources of chemicals addition to soil. Some of these chemicals
include oil products from refineries, improper disposal of chemical wastes and fumes from
landfills that fall to the soil in the form of acid rain. Radioactive materials from mining and
nuclear processes may reach the soil through water or fall-out. These compounds are then
ultimately added to our food chain. Some of these chemicals are very resistant to physical,
chemical and biological degradation and hence have prolonged life in the soil. The rapid
industrialization of agricultural industry and the need to generate cheap forms of energy have
further increased the concentration of hazardous chemicals in soil. As a result of these
chemical wastes rate of acute toxicity, mutagenesis and carcinogenesis in humans have
increased to high level.

Urbanization

Urbanization refers to the migration of more and more peoples to cities hence
increasing the growth of cities. This process enhances the soil pollution directly or indirectly.
Improper drainage and increase run off contaminates the nearby land and water. Similarly the
disposal of trash breaks down into the soil can increase the amount of chemical wastes in the
soil. Excess wastes deposition in the nearby soil increases the population of bacteria in the
soil, which increases the concentration of methane gas and other chemicals by the process of
degradation. It also creates foul smell and hence has high impact on the quality of life.
Deforestation is the biggest threat that the modern world is facing. It can increase the rate of
soil erosion both by water and wind. Soil erosion can decrease the amount of important
nutrients in soil along with the destruction of soil structure.

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Ozone
Ozone (O3) is a molecule in which three atoms of oxygen are bonded together. The
oxygen gas in the air we breathe has two oxygen atoms bonded together (O2). Ozone is
relatively unstable and releases its third oxygen atom readily so it oxidizes and burns things
more readily than oxygen gas. This characteristic makes ozone in the troposphere (ground-
level ozone) an air pollutant but in the stratosphere, ozone is essential for protecting life on
Earth. Ozone in the stratosphere is formed when an oxygen molecule (O2) is broken apart
into two separate oxygen atoms (O) by high-energy ultra violet (UV) solar radiation. Each of
the resulting oxygen atoms (O) in turn reacts with an oxygen molecule (O2) creating ozone
(O3). Once produced, ozone can absorb UV radiation breaking the molecule to regenerate an
oxygen molecule and a single oxygen atom. So, while ozone is continually being replenished,
it is also continually being destroyed. If the rate of ozone creation is equal to the rate of
destruction, the total amount will remain the same. Because there is so much oxygen in our
atmosphere, this “ozone-oxygen cycle” is continuously absorbing UV radiation.

The Ozone Layer

Ozone makes up a very small proportion of the gases in our atmosphere and most of it
is concentrated in a portion of the stratosphere roughly 17 – 30 km above the surface. This
region, called the ozone layer, acts as a protective shield that protects life on the surface of
the Earth by absorbing most of the harmful portions of the high-energy UV radiation coming
from the sun. UV is subdivided into three types namely UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C. Of these
three types, UV-A is the least energetic and least harmful but can cause some damage to
living cells, resulting in sunburns and skin damage. UV-A is also not absorbed by ozone in
the stratosphere and is therefore transmitted through the atmosphere to the surface of the

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Earth. UV-C is the most harmful and most energetic of all UV, but is strongly absorbed in
both the thermosphere and the stratosphere and does not make it to the Earth’s surface. UV-C
is the one responsible for the splitting of oxygen molecules in the stratosphere that leads to
the formation of ozone. When ozone absorbs UV it regenerates oxygen atoms and releases
heat which warms the upper part of the stratosphere. Since UV-C does not make it to the
Earth’s surface, the most harmful form of UV radiation that reaches the surface is UV-B.
However, the amount of UV-B that reaches Earth’s surface is significantly reduced because
most of it is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. Ozone is the only known gas that absorbs
UV-B.
Natural conditions in the stratosphere sustain a dynamic balance between the creation
and destruction of ozone, which helps to ensure the continued existence of the ozone layer.
Any disruption of this balance that results in a higher rate of ozone destruction than ozone
creation would result in depletion of ozone. Ozone depletion, consequently, leads to
significant increase in the amount of harmful UV-B radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface
and this what we are talking about when we discuss the ozone problem.
The Ozone Hole
The Ozone Hole is not really a “hole” but rather an area where the thickness of the
ozone layer is greatly reduced. This hole is a result of ozone depletion that occurs every year
during the Antarctic spring and was first reported to the public by the British Antarctic
Survey in 1985. The thickness of the ozone layer above the Antarctic continued to decline
while the geographic area covered by the ozone hole continued to increase, reaching its
lowest concentration (thickness) in 1994 and largest geographic area in 2000. Recent data
shows that ozone concentration globally and in the Arctic and Antarctic is no longer
declining.
During the long winter months of darkness over the Antarctic, atmospheric
temperatures drop, creating unique conditions for chemical reactions that are not found
anywhere else in the atmosphere. During this time, the Antarctic air mass is isolated from the
rest of the atmosphere and circulates around the pole in what is known as the polar vortex.
This isolation allows temperatures to drop low enough to create ice crystals at high altitudes.
Ozone, nitric acid, sulfuric acid and other chlorine containing molecules are absorbed on the
surfaces of these ice particles. When the sun rises over the Antarctic in the southern spring
(October), light rapidly releases free chlorine atoms into the stratosphere. The chlorine atoms
react with ozone breaking it down to molecular oxygen and an oxygen atom. The polar

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vortex keeps the ozone-depleted air inside the vortex from mixing with the undepleted air
outside the vortex, hence the formation of an ozone hole.
Ozone Depletion
Global ozone concentrations change periodically with regular natural cycles such as
changing seasons, winds, and long time scale sun variations. Concentrations of ozone in the
atmosphere are measured in parts per billion (ppb). Scientists have been measuring ozone
since the 1920’s using ground-based instruments that look skyward. Satellite measurements
of concentrations of atmospheric ozone began in 1970 and continue today.
Ozone depletion occurs when the rate at which ozone is broken down is greater than
the rate of its creation, interfering with the dynamic balance between creation and destruction
that maintains the ozone layer. When this happens, the amount of harmful UV-B radiation
that reaches the Earth’s surface increases. Ozone depletion was first identified over the
Antarctic. Scientists suggested that reactions involving man-made chlorine-containing
compounds were responsible for depleting ozone in the stratosphere. This hypothesis was
based mostly on the physical and chemical properties of these compounds and knowledge
about atmospheric conditions.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are man-made compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine
and carbon. These compounds were commonly used as propellants in everyday products such
as shaving cream, hair spray, deodorants, paints and insecticides and as coolants in
refrigerators and air conditioners. CFCs are extremely stable molecules and do not react with
other chemicals in the lower atmosphere, part of the reason why they were considered a safe
choice. Their stability means that they tend to remain in the atmosphere for a very long time.
With the constant movement of air in the lower atmosphere, CFCs eventually make their way
into the stratosphere. Exposure to ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere breaks them apart,
releasing chlorine atoms. Free chlorine (Cl) atoms then react with ozone molecules, taking
one oxygen atom to form chlorine monoxide (ClO) and leaving an oxygen molecule (O2).
The ClO reacts with other atoms freeing up the Cl making it available to react with another
ozone molecule, repeating the cycle over and over resulting in ozone depletion.

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The Montreal Protocol
International policy efforts to restrict production of ozone depleting CFCs culminated
in the 1987 treaty known as the Montreal Protocol in which signing nations agreed to cut
CFC production in half by 1998. At least five follow-up agreements since then helped to
deepen the cuts, advanced timetables for compliance, and addressed additional ozone-
depleting substances such as halons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Most countries around the world have phased out
production of the substances covered by the agreements and industry has been able to shift to
safer alternative chemicals. As a result, there’s evidence that the Antarctic ozone hole has
stopped growing worse, although recovery is not expected anytime soon. Phasing out CFCs
and HCFCs is also beneficial in protecting the earth's climate, as these substances are also
very damaging greenhouse gases.
As part of the United States' commitment to implementing the Montreal Protocol, the
U.S. Congress amended the Clean Air Act, adding provisions for protection of the ozone
layer. Most importantly, the amended Act required the gradual end to the production of
chemicals that deplete the ozone layer. The Clean Air Act amendments passed by Congress
requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop and implement regulations
for the responsible management of ozone-depleting substances in the United States. Under
the Clean Air Act, EPA has created several regulatory programs to address numerous issues,
including:
Ø Ending the production of ozone-depleting substances,
Ø Ensuring that refrigerants and halon fire extinguishing agents are recycled properly,

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 Ø Identifying safe and effective alternatives to ozone-depleting substances,
Ø Banning the release of ozone-depleting refrigerants during the service, maintenance,
and disposal of air conditioners and other refrigeration equipment,
Ø Requiring that manufacturers label products either containing or made with the most
harmful ozone depleting substances.
SMOG
Smog is the combination of smoke and fog. The word originally was used to describe
the unpleasant combination of smoke and fog laced with sulfur dioxide which was formerly
prevalent in London when high-sulfur coal was the primary fuel used in that city. Smog
formation is most common in urban areas with heavy traffic or industries in the nearby areas.

Smoggy conditions are characterized by irritation in the eyes, nose and throat with
decrease visibility. The formation of oxidants in the air, particularly ozone, is indicative of
smog formation. Smog may either be photochemical smog or industrial smog.

Industrial smog also known as sulphurous smog is produced when large quantities of
oxides of Sulphur are produced by burning fossil fuels especially coal. Industrial smog also
contains huge amount of suspended particles and CO. Both these gases are asphyxiating ones
and can cause severe breathing problems. Sulphur dioxide further oxidizes to sulphur
trioxide, which on combination with water produces sulphuric acid.

S+O2 SO2
SO2 + O2 SO3
SO3 +H2O H2SO4

Sulphuric acid thus produced has devastating effects both on humans and other components
of the environment.

Photochemical smog is produced when UV radiations in sunlight initiates reaction

between NOx and hydrocarbons produced mainly by automobiles. Combination of these two
chemicals results in the formation of ozone, which is the key element in photochemical smog.

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