As a thundercloud moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal electric charge,
but of opposite polarity, is induced on the Earth's surface underneath the cloud.
The induced positive surface charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be
small as the thundercloud approaches, increasing as the center of the storm arrives
and dropping as the thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced
surface charge could be roughly represented as a bell curve.
The oppositely charged regions create an electric field within the air between
them. This electric field varies in relation to the strength of the surface charge
on the base of the thundercloud – the greater the accumulated charge, the higher
the electrical field.
Flashes and strikes
The best-studied and understood form of lightning is cloud to ground (CG)
lightning. Although more common, intra-cloud (IC) and cloud-to-cloud (CC) flashes
are very difficult to study given there are no "physical" points to monitor inside
the clouds. Also, given the very low probability of lightning striking the same
point repeatedly and consistently, scientific inquiry is difficult even in areas of
high CG frequency.
Lightning leaders
A downward leader travels towards earth, branching as it goes.
Lightning strike caused by the connection of two leaders, positive shown in blue
and negative in red
In a process not well understood, a bidirectional channel of ionized air, called a
"leader", is initiated between oppositely-charged regions in a thundercloud.
Leaders are electrically conductive channels of ionized gas that propagate through,
or are otherwise attracted to, regions with a charge opposite of that of the leader
tip. The negative end of the bidirectional leader fills a positive charge region,
also called a well, inside the cloud while the positive end fills a negative charge
well. Leaders often split, forming branches in a tree-like pattern.[49] In
addition, negative and some positive leaders travel in a discontinuous fashion, in
a process called "stepping". The resulting jerky movement of the leaders can be
readily observed in slow-motion videos of lightning flashes.
It is possible for one end of the leader to fill the oppositely-charged well
entirely while the other end is still active. When this happens, the leader end
which filled the well may propagate outside of the thundercloud and result in
either a cloud-to-air flash or a cloud-to-ground flash. In a typical cloud-to-
ground flash, a bidirectional leader initiates between the main negative and lower
positive charge regions in a thundercloud. The weaker positive charge region is
filled quickly by the negative leader which then propagates toward the inductively-
charged ground.
The positively and negatively charged leaders proceed in opposite directions,
positive upwards within the cloud and negative towards the earth. Both ionic
channels proceed, in their respective directions, in a number of successive spurts.
Each leader "pools" ions at the leading tips, shooting out one or more new leaders,
momentarily pooling again to concentrate charged ions, then shooting out another
leader. The negative leader continues to propagate and split as it heads downward,
often speeding up as it gets closer to the Earth's surface.
About 90% of ionic channel lengths between "pools" are approximately 45 m (148 ft)
in length.[50] The establishment of the ionic channel takes a comparatively long
amount of time (hundreds of milliseconds) in comparison to the resulting discharge,
which occurs within a few dozen microseconds. The electric current needed to
establish the channel, measured in the tens or hundreds of amperes, is dwarfed by
subsequent currents during the actual discharge.
Initiation of the lightning leader is not well understood. The electric field
strength within the thundercloud is not typically large enough to initiate this
process by itself.[51] Many hypotheses have been proposed. One hypothesis
postulates that showers of relativistic electrons are created by cosmic rays and
are then accelerated to higher velocities via a process called runaway breakdown.
As these relativistic electrons collide and ionize neutral air molecules, they
initiate leader formation. Another hypothesis involves locally enhanced electric
fields being formed near elongated water droplets or ice crystals.[52] Percolation
theory, especially for the case of biased percolation,[53] [clarification needed]
describes random connectivity phenomena, which produce an evolution of connected
structures similar to that of lightning strikes. A streamer avalanche model[54] has
recently been favored by observational data taken by LOFAR during storms.[55][56]
Upward streamers
Upwards streamer emanating from the top of a pool cover
When a stepped leader approaches the ground, the presence of opposite charges on
the ground enhances the strength of the electric field. The electric field is
strongest on grounded objects whose tops are closest to the base of the
thundercloud, such as trees and tall buildings. If the electric field is strong
enough, a positively charged ionic channel, called a positive or upward streamer,
can develop from these points. This was first theorized by Heinz Kasemir.[57][58]
[59]
As negatively charged leaders approach, increasing the localized electric field
strength, grounded objects already experiencing corona discharge will exceed a
threshold and form upward streamers.
Attachment
Once a downward leader connects to an available upward leader, a process referred
to as attachment, a low-resistance path is formed and discharge may occur.
Photographs have been taken in which unattached streamers are clearly visible. The
unattached downward leaders are also visible in branched lightning, none of which
are connected to the earth, although it may appear they are. High-speed videos can
show the attachment process in progress.[60]
Discharge
Return stroke
"Return stroke" redirects here. For other uses, see Return stroke (disambiguation).
High-speed photography showing different parts of a lightning flash during the
discharge process as seen in Toulouse, France.
Once a conductive channel bridges the air gap between the negative charge excess in
the cloud and the positive surface charge excess below, there is a large drop in
resistance across the lightning channel. Electrons accelerate rapidly as a result
in a zone beginning at the point of attachment, which expands across the entire
leader network at up to one third of the speed of light.[61] This is the "return
stroke" and it is the most luminous and noticeable part of the lightning discharge.
A large electric charge flows along the plasma channel, from the cloud to the
ground, neutralising the positive ground charge as electrons flow away from the
strike point to the surrounding area. This huge surge of current creates large
radial voltage differences along the surface of the ground. Called step potentials,
[citation needed] they are responsible for more injuries and deaths in groups of
people or of other animals than the strike itself.[62] Electricity takes every path
available to it.[63] Such step potentials will often cause current to flow through
one leg and out another, electrocuting an unlucky human or animal standing near the
point where the lightning strikes.
The electric current of the return stroke averages 30 kiloamperes for a typical
negative CG flash, often referred to as "negative CG" lightning. In some cases, a
ground-to-cloud (GC) lightning flash may originate from a positively charged region
on the ground below a storm. These discharges normally originate from the tops of
very tall structures, such as communications antennas. The rate at which the return
stroke current travels has been found to be around 100,000 km/s (one-third of the
speed of light).[64]
The massive flow of electric current occurring during the return stroke combined
with the rate at which it occurs (measured in microseconds) rapidly superheats the
completed leader channel, forming a highly electrically conductive plasma channel.
The core temperature of the plasma during the return stroke may exceed 27,800 °C
(50,000 °F),[65] causing it to radiate with a brilliant, blue-white color. Once the
electric current stops flowing, the channel cools and dissipates over tens or
hundreds of milliseconds, often disappearing as fragmented patches of glowing gas.
The nearly instantaneous heating during the return stroke causes the air to expand
explosively, producing a powerful shock wave which is heard as thunder.
