CHAPTER 8:

Special Senses
 The Senses

 General senses of touch

 Temperature
 Pressure
 Pain
 Special senses
 Sight
 Hearing
 Smell
 Taste
 Equilibrium
The Eye and Vision
 The Eye and Vision

 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes

 Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
 Protection for the eye
 Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit
 A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye
Accessory Structure of the Eye

 Extrinsic eye muscles

 Eyelids
 Conjunctiva
 Lacrimal apparatus
Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Eyelids
 Eyelashes
 Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Meibomian glands
 Tarsal gland, palpebral
gland,
tarsoconjunctival
gland
 modified
sebacious
glands
produce an
oily secretion
to lubricate
the eye
 Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Ciliary glands –
modified
sweat glands
between the
eyelashes
Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Conjunctiva
 Membrane that lines the eyelids
 Connects to the surface of the eye
 Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye
 Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Lacrimal apparatus
 Lacrimal gland – produces
lacrimal fluid
 Lacrimal canals – drains
lacrimal fluid from eyes
 Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Lacrimal sac – provides

passage of lacrimal fluid
towards nasal cavity
Accessory Structures of the Eye

 Nasolacrimal duct –
empties lacrimal fluid
into the nasal cavity
Function of the Lacrimal Apparatus

 Properties of lacrimal fluid

 Dilute salt solution (tears)
 Contains antibodies and lysozyme
 Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
 Empties into the nasal cavity
 Extrinsic Eye Muscles

 Muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye

 Produce eye movements
 Structure of the Eye

 The wall is composed of three layers

 Fibrous layer –
outside layer
 Vascular layer –
middle
layer
 Sensory –
inside
layer
 The Fibrous Layer

 Sclera
 White connective tissue layer
 Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
 Cornea
 Transparent, central anterior portion
 Allows for light to pass through
 Repairs itself easily
 The only human tissue that can be transplanted
without fear of rejection
 Vascular Layer

 Choroid
 Blood-rich nutritive tunic that contains dark pigment
 Pigment prevents light from scattering
 Moving anteriorly, choroid is modified into two smooth
muscle structure
 Ciliary body – smooth muscle
 Iris
 Pigmented layer that gives eye color
 Pupil – rounded opening in the iris
 Sensory Layer (Retina)

 Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)

 Rods
 Cones
 Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two-neuron
chain
 Bipolar neurons
 Ganglion cells
 Signals leave the retina toward the brain through the
optic nerve
Neurons of the Retina
Neurons of the Retina and Vision

 Rods
 Most are found towards the edges of the retina
 Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision
 Perception is all in gray tones
Neurons of the Retina and Vision

 Cones
 Allow for detailed color vision
 Densest in the center of the retina
 Fovea centralis – area of the retina with only cones
 No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disk, or blind
spot
 Cone Sensitivity

 There are three types of

cones
 Different cones are
sensitive to different
wavelengths
 Color blindness is the
result of lack of one cone
type
 Lens

 Biconvex crystal-like structure

 Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to
the ciliary body

Figure 8.3a
 Internal Eye Chamber Fluids

 Aqueous humor
 Watery fluid found in chamber between the lens and
cornea
 Similar to blood plasma
 Helps maintain intraocular pressure
 Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
 Reabsorbed into venous blood through the canal of
Schlemm
 Internal Eye Chamber Fluids

 Vitreous humor
 Gel-like substance behind the lens
 Keeps the eye from collapsing
 Lasts a lifetime and is not replaced
 Lens Accommodation

 Light must be focused to a

point on the retina for
optimal vision
 The eye is set for distance
vision
(over 20 ft away)
 The lens must change shape
to focus for closer objects
Images Formed on the Retina
 Visual Pathway

 Photoreceptors of the
retina
 Optic nerve
 Optic nerve crosses at the
optic chiasma
 Optic tracts
 Thalamus (axons form optic
radiation)
 Visual cortex of the occipital
lobe
 Eye Reflexes

 Internal muscles are controlled by the autonomic

nervous system
 Bright light causes pupils to constrict through
action of radial and ciliary muscles
 Viewing close objects causes accommodation
 External muscles control eye movement to follow
objects
 Viewing close objects causes convergence (eyes
moving medially)
 Eye Reflexes

 Photopupillary reflex
 When the eyes are suddenly exposed to bright light, the
pupils immediately constrict
 Accommodation pupillary reflex
 The pupils also constrict reflexively when we view close
objects
 CLINICAL CORRELATES

 Cataracts
 Cause vision to become hazy and distorted, and they
eventually cause blindness in the affected eye
 Other risk factors for forming cataracts include diabetes
mellitus, frequent exposure to intense sunlight, and
heavy smoking.
 Glaucoma
 If drainage of aqueous humor is blocked, fluid backs up
like a clogged sink.
 Pressure within the eye may increase to dangerous levels
and compress the delicate retina and optic nerve.
 A common cause of blindness in the elderly
 Tonometer - used to measure the intraocular pressure
 Hemianopia
 is the loss of the same side of the visual field of both
eyes, which results from damage to the visual cortex on
one side only (as occurs in some CVAs).
The Ear and Equilibrium
 The Ear

 Houses two senses

 Hearing
 Equilibrium (balance)
 Receptors are mechanoreceptors
 Different organs house receptors for each sense
 Anatomy of the Ear

 The ear is divided into

three areas
 Outer (external) ear
 Middle ear
 Inner ear
 The External Ear

 Involved in hearing
only
 Structures of the
external ear
 Pinna (auricle)
 External auditory
canal
 The External Auditory Canal

 Narrow chamber in the temporal bone

 Lined with skin
 Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
 Ends at the tympanic membrane
The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity

 Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone

 Only involved in the sense of hearing
The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity

 Two tubes are associated with the inner ear

 The opening from the auditory canal is covered by the
tympanic membrane
 The auditory tube connecting the middle ear with the
throat
 Allows for equalizing pressure during yawning or
swallowing
 This tube is otherwise collapsed
 Bones of the Tympanic Cavity

 Three bones span the cavity

 Malleus (hammer)
 Incus (anvil)
 Stapes (stirrip)

Figure 8.12
 Bones of the Tympanic Cavity

 Vibrations from eardrum

move the malleus
 These bones transfer
sound to the inner ear
 Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth

 Includes sense organs for hearing and balance

 Filled with perilymph
 Inner Ear or Bony Labrynth

 A maze of bony chambers within the temporal bone

 Cochlea
 Vestibule
 Semicircular
canals
 Organs of Equilibrium

 Receptor cells are in two structures

 Vestibule
 Semicircular canals
 Organs of Equilibrium

 Equilibrium has two functional parts

 Static equilibrium
 Dynamic equilibrium
 Static Equilibrium

 Maculae – receptors in the vestibule

 Report on the position of the head
 Send information via the vestibular nerve
 Anatomy of the maculae
 Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic
membrane
 Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the
hair cells
 Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells
Function of Maculae
 Dynamic Equilibrium

 Crista ampullaris – receptors in the

semicircular canals
 Tuft of hair cells
 Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the hair
cells
 Action of angular head movements
 The cupula stimulates the hair cells
 An impulse is sent via the vestibular
nerve to the cerebellum
 Organs of Hearing

 Organ of Corti
 Located within the cochlea
 Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
 Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair cells
 Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve
impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe
Organs of Hearing
 Mechanisms of Hearing

 Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial

membrane
 Hair cells are bent by the membrane
 An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
 Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation
Mechanisms of Hearing

Figure 8.16a–b
 CLINICAL CORRELATES

 Otitis media
 Inflammation of the middle ear
 common result of a
sore throat, especially in children
 In otitis media, the eardrum bulges and often becomes
inflamed.
 When large amounts of fluid or pus
accumulate in the cavity, an emergency myringotomy
 Deafness hearing loss of any degree—from a slight
loss to a total inability to hear sound
 Conduction deafness
 Temporary or permanent
 results when something interferes with the conduction of
sound vibrations to the fluids of the inner ear
 Sensorineural deafness
 degeneration or damage to the receptor cells in the spiral
organ of Corti, to the cochlear nerve, or to neurons of
the auditory cortex
 Ménière’s syndrome
 serious pathology of the inner ear
 Progressive deafness occurs
 Affected individuals become nauseated and often have
howling or ringing sounds in their ears and vertigo (a
sensation of spinning)
Taste and Smell
Chemical Senses – Taste and Smell

 Both senses use chemoreceptors

 Stimulated by chemicals in solution
 Taste has four types of receptors
 Smell can differentiate a large range of chemicals
 Both senses complement each other and respond to
many of the same stimuli
 Olfaction – The Sense of Smell

 Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal cavity

 Neurons with long cilia
 Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection
 Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve
 Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex
Olfactory Epithelium
 CLINICAL CORRELATES

 Anosmia
 Loss of sense of smell
 Result from head injuries, after effects of nasal cavity
inflammation or aging
 The Sense of Taste
 Taste buds house the
receptor organs
 Location of taste buds
 Most are on the
tongue
 Soft palate
 Cheeks
 The Tongue and Taste

 The tongue is covered with projections called papillae

 Filiform papillae – sharp with no taste buds
 Fungifiorm papillae – rounded with taste buds
 Circumvallate papillae – large papillae with taste buds
 Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae
 Structure of Taste Buds

 Gustatory cells are the receptors

 Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
 Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva
 Structure of Taste Buds

 Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex by

several cranial nerves because taste buds are found in
different areas
 Facial nerve
 Glossopharyngeal nerve
 Vagus nerve
Anatomy of Taste Buds
 Taste Sensations

 Sweet receptors  Umami

 Sugars  elicited by the amino
 Saccharine acid glutamate
 Some amino acids  which
 Sour receptors appears to be
 Acids responsible for the
 Bitter receptors flavor of
 Alkaloids monosodium
 Salty receptors glutamate, a
 Metal ions food additive
Developmental Aspects of the Special
Senses

 Formed early in embryonic development

 Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
 All special senses are functional at birth