ACADEMIC WRITING GUIDE

B.A. European Cultures and Society

Table of Contents
1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

2 The content of a paper .............................................................................................. 1

How to start: Finding a topic and developing a research question .............................................. 1

Familiarise yourself with the topic and start researching it ........................................................ 2
Structuring Your Text................................................................................................................ 3
Writing Your Text ..................................................................................................................... 4
3 The formal requirements for a paper ......................................................................... 5

Formatting ............................................................................................................................... 5
Structure and Parts of an Academic Paper ................................................................................. 6
4 Referencing and good scientific practise .................................................................... 8

Using sources ........................................................................................................................... 8

Citation Styles .......................................................................................................................... 9
Plagiarism .............................................................................................................................. 11
Anti-Plagiarism Declaration .................................................................................................... 11
5 Further Information ................................................................................................. 11

6 Checklist .................................................................................................................. 12
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1 Introduction
In the world of academia, writing is one of the core tenets of learning, teaching and
dissemination of knowledge. European Cultures and Society (EUCS) is a natural part of that
world and having a good understanding of academic writing is crucial. Alongside of succeeding
in your written assignments and presentations, academic writing allows you to organise your
ideas and arguments successfully on paper. Writing a paper fulfils several functions; first, the
students sharpen their ability to work methodically on a research question and to develop an
argument in an analytically convincing way. Second, they learn to conduct independent
research to support their arguments and relate it to existing academic research. By writing
term papers, students learn to work with different sources and utilise them. Third, writing and
research help to familiarise students with the process of academic writing and present their
research results in a well-structured and convincing paper. In this way, students acquire key
qualifications that enable them to cope better with future challenges, whether inside or
outside the academic world. In the following, common questions regarding written
assignments are answered.
Aim of this guide is to provide you the basic topics and rules of academic writing. Writing a
paper is a challenging activity. Of course, it should be, yet challenging does not mean it has to
be an arduous process. Many of the problems students struggle with when writing papers are
easily avoidable. The following advice can help you avoid some unnecessary difficulties while
gaining certain skills to understand better how to write academically. Most of all, academic
writing is a craft and an art that relies on practice. Therefore, the more you write, the easier
it becomes.

2 The content of a paper

How to start: Finding a topic and developing a research question
As already indicated, you write your work in the context of a course. So, make sure you know
what the lecturer’s expectations are and what the requirements for each module or
submodule examination are. This may concern the citation style, the length and structure of
the work, the choice of topic, the method to be used, the number of texts to be consulted,
etc.
The beginning of the writing process consists of finding your question, topic and main point.
In some modules, questions are given which are to be answered in the paper, in others the
topic is to be settled in consultation with the responsible lecturer. Furthermore, the paper can
consist in summing up a given presentation and the following discussion or the presentation
of a project. In other modules, the papers are to be written on topics from several disciplines.
So, before beginning to plan your paper, it is a good idea to analyse the question or the task
set, making sure you understand what sort of answer or paper your lecturer is expecting you
to produce.
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So let’s take a look at possible tasks for your paper. In some cases, you should explain,
compare, evaluate, describe, debate, elaborate, etc. In others you should answer what- and
how-questions or use theories, choose cases or give examples. It is quite important to consider
the different aspects you have to deal with accordingly. When choosing your topic or research
question, make sure that it is not formulated too broadly. Therefore, please come to your
lecturer’s office to discuss your research question or topic. The clearer the research question
and the more work you have done with it, the more productive the discussion with the lecturer
can be. If you still have problems with the research question, do not hesitate to contact him
or her again.

Familiarise yourself with the topic and start researching it

If the subject of your paper is clearly identified, you can familiarise yourself with it and think
about how to deal with it. Often, you will be able to use content from the course. In addition,
however, you will also need to research and read other literature. To be able to fall back on
the contents of the course and the literature you should make notes. You should highlight or
underline the important passages, the main thesis and arguments. You should also make extra
notes where you refer to important quotes, sum up arguments and even write a short
summary of the text. The short summary, called an excerpt, is particularly helpful for texts
that you work with frequently, in order to remind you the crucial points.
The first and main art in doing research is reading. Yet, reading academic texts is different
from reading novels or newspaper articles. First of all, it is useful to do a bit of a background
check before approaching your topic. Who wrote the text? In which discipline or school of
thought? When and where was the article written? To which academic debate or current
problem does the text refer? It is important to detect the problem that the article is dealing
with, the key question, the hypothesis, the main arguments that are being employed, the
concepts and key terms that are being used, which conclusion is reached, etc. It is equally
important to take a look at the references the author uses, either to support his/her own
argument or to refute them. It is important to do a background check on these main sources
and references in order to further understand the intellectual context of the text. In the end,
the most important part is your own reflections upon the arguments of the author, after
carefully analysing them.
Academic sources will be the cornerstone for your work throughout your years in university
and even in further future. Before even analysing or taking down notes, you should first find
the sources that are relevant to the focus of your work.
There are numerous ways of researching or finding literature. First of all, your library would
be a valuable source for books and printed articles. In addition to the library stock at the
Europa-Universität Flensburg (https://www.zhb-flensburg.de/en), you may also benefit from
several Danish university libraries to rent books and articles, both physically and online
(https://bibliotek.dk/eng). You can order books, essays and other resources that are not held
in the collection of the Campus Library Flensburg (ZHB) or in any other library in Flensburg as
inter-library loans. With a VPN you can access Europa-Universität Flensburg’s internal network
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directly via the internet and then use services which are otherwise only available on campus
such as, for example, access to files located on the server or to library catalogues which are
not available otherwise.
Beside libraries, which offer both physical and online opportunities for researching literature,
the online world hosts an incomprehensible number of sources, containing multitudes of
disciplines, topics and focus. Considering the sheer size of these databases, it is not that hard
to get lost while looking for sources online. However, certain websites and databases could
give you a head start and help you to develop a good understanding of searching for sources.
For example, Google Scholar is a good starting point, as the website functions as a search
engine for academic databases. Similarly, there are several databases, such as JSTOR, that may
help you find academic articles to further your knowledge of the topic you are working on.
The key issue here is relying on scholarly, peer-reviewed and recognized sources. Regardless
of how valuable they may seem, opinion pieces, newspaper articles or encyclopaedic entries
should not be the core of your literature. Therefore, your search for literature should focus on
academic literature.
You can use various programs to manage your literature. Throughout the campus "Citavi" is
used as a reference management programme. You can download Citavi to your personal
computer at no charge. For Mac users “Mendeley” can prove an useful alternative.

Structuring Your Text

You should make a plan before you start writing. Most students produce more coherent
papers when they begin with a plan, even if that plan gets modified in the process of writing
the essay. The plan needs only be a broad outline, indicating the main topics of each
paragraph. But putting your plan down on paper will probably help you to start writing the
paper properly, and save you from writing large sections which end up deleted. For some
people the process of writing a plan is also the process of planning the paper itself: it’s not as
if the plan exists in the mind and then is simply transcribed onto paper. Rather, until the
student begins writing a plan, no plan exists.
You’re writing an academic paper. Therefore, you work on a research question, test a
hypothesis with a certain research method, or argue for a thesis. In general, a paper consists
of three parts: an introduction, where you present your main question and your hypothesis,
a main part, where you elaborate your argument in-depth, reflect upon possible counter-
arguments in order to refute them, and a conclusion, where you sum up your reasoning. In
writing a paper you may utilize a more flexible structure, in particular, when it comes to the
main body. Still, the outline of a paper may prove useful in order to structure your thoughts
before indulging in the writing. Therefore, doing an outline for yourself may serve as an
orientation while laying out your arguments. With this structure in mind, you can use the
learned and newly adopted content and specifically take note of further texts. In addition, you
can locate your thoughts in the paper.
The introduction is the first chapter. Here you present your research question, the research
method, the structure of your task, and the sources you will use. You also clarify your interest
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in the question and place your research question in a context, e.g. with regard to existing
literature, current politics or the historical context. Make sure that in a few sentences you
clearly state the argument of the paper and the specific steps you will take in the body of the
paper to make that argument convincing. The key aspect of the introduction is to provide
answers to following questions: “what the paper is about”, “why does the topic matter” and
“how are you going to argue your key points”.
In the main body, existing research is used to develop the argument. Make sure that you select
the sources according to their quality, i.e. the relevance for your question. Whether you
rewrite or quote directly, make sure you indicate the quote correctly and specify the exact
source you are quoting. However, do not use too many direct quotations.
Be sure to follow a common denominator when working on your assignment. Don’t get lost
in aspects that aren’t relevant to your argument. Always ask yourself: is this relevant to my
own research question? Close each chapter with a brief assessment of how and why it is
important for your research question.
Each paragraph must contain a thought that is relevant to the argument or analysis you are
presenting. The first sentence of a paragraph summarizes the main idea to be presented in
the paragraph. It is explained in the paragraph. As soon as a new thought begins, you begin a
new paragraph.
The conclusion summarises the results of your arguments or analysis, draw conclusions and
assess their relevance. Don’t just give a short summary of your main chapters. Instead, present
your results in the academic context you mentioned in the introduction. Do not hesitate to
draw your own conclusions and identify aspects that could be addressed in future research.

Writing Your Text

You should start writing sooner rather than later. The process of defending your position in
writing is, as we’ve seen, often a process of thinking things through, not of transcribing
thought. Your model should not be that of doing research on a topic and then writing up what
you have discovered. The act of writing should stimulate your thought, and perhaps send you
back to your books and notes to clarify an issue, or check up on an idea. Some students don’t
begin to write a paper until very near to its deadline. If you have a tendency to procrastinate
about your writing, bear in mind that the process of writing a first draft of a paper is a way of
exploring the issues. Don’t let your subconscious trick you into thinking you need to do much
more research before beginning to write. You will be amazed at how the ideas emerge when
you are writing.
Academic Language
Proper language plays an essential role for the expression and clearness of your arguments.
Academic writing takes place in a formal context and your work is expected to be clear and
straightforward. Choosing words that are appropriate in your writing can convince the readers
that your work is serious, well-thought and important. Therefore, while writing your paper,
you should put extra effort in your grammar choices and express yourself accordingly.
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Following examples show some common mistakes regarding the academic language and offer
alternatives.
Examples
The use of formal vocabulary
 Do not use contracted forms don’t, can’t, aren’t > do not, cannot, are not
 Use strong and direct verbs to get > to obtain, to achieve
 Avoid employing vague words things > aspects, matters, component
 Avoid subjective words good, bad > advantage, disadvantage
The use of appropriate transitions and connectors
 Adding: Furthermore; Additionally; Moreover
 Contrasting: However; In contrast; Nevertheless
 Cause: For this reason; Due to; As a result
 Effect: Therefore; Thus; Consequently
 Purpose: In order to
 Emphasis: Particularly; Above all; Especially
 Examples: For example; For instance; Such as
 Concluding: To conclude; To summarize

3 The formal requirements for a paper

The formal correctness is one of the criteria for the evaluation of the work. In addition to the
formal structure of your paper, spelling, grammar and citation are also relevant for formal
correctness. Serious errors in these formalities may result in you not completing the
assignment. All writing that is handed in must be typed and proofread carefully for spelling
and other errors. The following tips are rather general. Therefore, please ask your lecturer if
you are unsure about certain aspects. Another important formal requirement is the Anti-
Plagiarism Declaration, which is an important must for all submitted papers throughout your
education in EUCS; the details of the declaration are provided in the upcoming sections.

Formatting
 Paper size and color: white A4 format paper and black ink
 Line spacing: 1.5 throughout the paper (except quotations, footnotes or
references)
 Font and font size: 12-point (footnotes and setoff quotations 10-point); Times New
Roman
 Margin: the margin to be left on all sides generally runs up to 1 inch (2.54 cm)
 Page numbers: use Arabic numerals for numbering all pages consecutively, except
the title page.
 Put the page number preferably at the center or the left of the top or the bottom
of the page.
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Structure and Parts of an Academic Paper

A paper always has the same structure: Cover page, table of contents, introduction, main part,
conclusion, bibliography and anti-plagiarism declaration. If required, you can add a summary,
an abstract or an appendix. On the following page, please find an example of a cover sheet. It
includes all the information the cover sheet of a paper needs to have:

The cover page is followed by the table of contents. The table of contents gives the reader a
quick overview of your work. It gives a first impression of whether you have approached the
topic appropriately. Take your time to judge whether you have assigned sufficient written
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space to each aspect of your argumentation in the paper. When you have finished writing,
read your table of contents carefully. Confirm whether the chapters and subchapters show
that you have a clear and structured paper. Make sure that the different parts fit together and
that the different chapter headings provide meaningful information about the content of the
chapter.
As already discussed in relation to the structuring of the text, a work generally consists of
three parts: the introduction, the main part, the final part. The main body is divided into
several chapters. The following overview gives an example of the contents that may be
contained in the parts of the paper.
Example: General Outline of a Paper
Introduction:
 Declare the topic, and the academic field and debate
 Present the main problem, and the consequent research question
 Explain the relevance of the topic, and research question as the purpose
 Present your thesis/hypothesis
 Present the methodological approach
 Sum up what you will do in the course of the paper
Main part:
 Theoretical/conceptual background
 Literature Review of the field/debate
 Explanation of research design and the methodology
 Introduce theories and approaches that support your argumentation with a relevant theory
or concept
 Discuss also theories and approaches that refute your argument, and reflect upon their
counter-arguments
 Argumentation has to be backed by proper sources: approve or disapprove with your
statement/thesis in a logical fashion
 Take the reader by the hand to make her understand your argumentative point
 Stay focused on your research question
 Consider different sources and indicate quotations
 Every part of your paper is constructed similarly to the overall paper and, thus, also
structured accordingly, with an introduction, main part and conclusion
Conclusion:
 Summarize your argumentation and come to an overall conclusion
 Do not integrate new information, sources or quotations
 Closing your paper in drawing back to the beginning and answering your research question
Bibliography/References/Works Cited
 Include every citation used throughout the paper
 Don´t list literature not used in the paper (in text or via reference in the footnotes)
 Style of citation dictates how you should include your sources to the bibliography
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4 Referencing and good scientific practise

Using sources
Good sources are important for the quality and validity of an academic paper! But keep in
mind that your paper should be based on your own line of argumentation. Other sources
should be used to support your claim(s). When writing a research paper, it is important that
you develop your own line of argumentation. Additionally, you should back up your ideas with
information taken from other sources. Whenever another source has been used, quoted or
paraphrased, you need to identify it accordingly. With the help of proper sources you can
underline and stress your own line of thought and, thereby, convince the reader of your
argumentation. Within your academic work, sources can be used either by direct quotation
or by paraphrasing. When using sources it is important to reference them either through in-
text references, footnotes or endnotes.

Direct Quotations
Quotations must be transferred one-to-one and accord with the original in words, spelling,
and internal punctuation. Every change must be clearly acknowledged. Use […] whenever you
change something from the original wording. In order to have a running text, do not drop
quotations into the text without warning. Rather, use introductory phrases by mentioning the
author’s name, to prepare readers for the quotation. Examples are: According to XX, “…” / As
XX mentions, “…”.
Quotations of up to three lines are integrated into the main text with quotation marks.
Quotations of more than three lines are placed in an extra paragraph, set-off by a line spacing
of 1.5 and indention (one inch or ten spaces from the left margin). Within this paragraph use
a line spacing of 1. Quotation marks are possible, but not required, since these characteristics
already indicate the quotation.

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means presenting another scholar’s idea in your own words. It is insufficient to
change the words of the original sentence: the words and the sentence structure should differ
from the original, however, without changing the content and the basis of the idea or the
argument. Given that the idea behind the paraphrased sentence stems from someone else’s
work, you need to recognize that work by referring to it in the text, or in a footnote/endnote
– eg. (see XX, page c). Refer to the paraphrased literature at least at the end of each paragraph
that contains a paraphrasing. It is not enough to refer to paraphrased literature only in the
end of each page or chapter. The reader should know when and how long exactly you follow
another author´s argument.
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Citation Styles
While you are writing a paper, citations are the key to developing the theoretical background,
your own arguments, your analysis, and some other important aspects. It is also the best way
to avoid any possibility of plagiarism. Citations show that you rely on and use knowledge from
respected and recognized academic sources. Every citation in your paper should be present
both in the text and at the end of your work in the bibliography. There are several recognized
citation types, including APA, Harvard, and Chicago. Depending on your lecturer and the
subject area you are focusing on, you can use different styles, but before you do, we
recommend that you consult your lecturer. Considering the multidiscipline nature of the
EUCS, having a good understanding of several citation styles is important; this also will be
helpful in your further education and career, as understanding citation and its styles is
extremely helpful with organising your ideas and your writing.

All three styles require the same basic information, but the order and the importance of this
information varies, partly because different academic areas highlight different elements of a
source when referring to previous research.
The Harvard, APA and MLA styles are “in-text” citation styles, which means that you give
some information about the source immediately after the quote, but leave the rest for the
bibliography. The Chicago style relies more on the use of footnotes or endnotes. Regardless
of the style being used, the idea is to enable the reader to find the correct source in the
bibliography, which is where the complete reference will be found. Be aware that you should
ask your lecturer if there are specific requirements regarding the citation style for the
respective paper.

Harvard (APA – American Psychological Association)

In-text (book) citation:
… therefore a scientifically founded interdisciplinary engagement with Europe is
essential (Mayer, 2016, p. 368).
References:
Mayer, M. (2016) The Study of Europe. Flensburg: EUF Publishing.

The Harvard style (APA) was invented and introduced by the Harvard University and is for
example used in the humanities. Since humanities research shows how one scripture
influences another, the Harvard style emphasizes the name of the author and the page in the
original text you are using. This information allows scholars to easily locate the exact

For the rules and regulations of Economics, Political Economy lectures and assignments
please refer to the following website: https://www.uni-flensburg.de/en/cia/teaching/academic-
writing/
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sentences they are analysing. APA style referencing is an extension and further codified
version of Harvard style: although there are minor differences, two styles are both applicable
in social sciences and having an in-depth knowledge of one allows you to use the other skilfully
too.

Chicago
In-text (book) citation:
… therefore a scientifically founded interdisciplinary engagement with Europe is
essential1.
Footnote/Endnote:
1 Martin Mayer, The Study of Europe (Flensburg: EUF Publishing, 2016), 368.

As long as you continue to refer to the same source, you can continue using “Ibid., page
number”. Ibid. comes from the latin Ibidem, which means in the same place.

The alternative to in-text citation is to use footnotes that contain source information at the
bottom of the page. The footnote style we demonstrate here is Chicago Style, defined by the
University of Chicago. This style is particularly popular in historical research. In developing a
historical explanation from several primary sources, the use of footnotes allows the reader to
focus on the evidence rather than being distracted by the publication information about that
evidence. Footnotes/endnotes can be viewed when someone wants to track down your
source for further research.

MLA (Modern Language Association)

In-text (book) citation:
… therefore a scientifically founded interdisciplinary engagement with Europe is
essential (Mayer 368).
Works Cited:
Mayer, Martin. The Study of Europe. EUF Publishing, 2016.

Another citation style is MLA; a citation style, which is mostly, employed by literature and
cultural study disciplines.

All three of these styles have different conventions on how to refer to a source in the text of
your paper. Consistency of your citations is a very important aspect; you should learn the rules
of the style you use and use them consistently throughout your work.
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There are several different types of sources, books, articles, treaties, visual ones, online
literature, etc., with different types of authorship, such a single or multiple author(s), works
published by organizations or without known author(s). In-text references, footnotes,
endnotes, bibliography, etc. all need to follow the same convention consistently. Luckily, there
are computer programs and websites that support you with this. As indicated above EUF
provides the program Citavi to its students but you can also find many citation engines online.

Plagiarism
The topic of intellectual property (i.e. authorship) is one of the most crucial issues in academia.
Plagiarism is a breach of the ethical code in academics by using information without providing
proper credit to the owner/author of the information. The extent of the plagiarized
information may be one sentence, a whole paragraph or a simple quote; this does not change
the fact that an information that belongs to someone else is being used without proper credit.
As the author of your own article, the responsibility lies entirely with you; missing a citation,
overlooking a quote and referring to an idea of someone else without in-depth research or
proper credit is still considered as a breach of academic ethics. This applies to both intentional
and unintentional cases. Overlooking or skipping, even a simple citation, without any intent
to plagiarize, is still deemed as plagiarism, due to using a source without proper credit. As long
as you follow the proper academic conduct and pay utmost attention to your work,
unintentional plagiarism should not be an issue.
Yet, whether intentional or not, plagiarism will have certain consequences according to §14
(3) of the EUCS examination and Study Regulations. To avoid these possibly severe outcomes,
the best possible way is to familiarize yourself with the details of citation and to comprehend
the process of conducting research and academic writing.

Anti-Plagiarism Declaration
When submitting your papers, Europa-Universität Flensburg and EUCS require you to attach
an anti-plagiarism declaration to your work. This declaration confirms that the submission is
your own work and completed in line with ethical codes. Including this declaration to your
final submissions, whether term paper or bachelor’s thesis is crucial, one of the formal
requirements and every student must do it out without exceptions.
Please attach the official Anti-plagiarism declaration (dated and signed). It is possible to find
the anti-plagiarism declaration in the following link:
https://www.uni-flensburg.de/en/eucs/program-structure/documents

5 Further Information
This has been an overview about academic writing skills. You will further profit from the
academic writing classes that EUCS offers. As complex and confusing the formal requirements
might appear in the beginning, once you apply them, it will get easier. In any case, academic
writing is a practice, and you will improve, while working on your texts. If you have any doubts
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regarding the use of sources, the structuring of a text, you may just ask your lecturer who can
give you a more detailed answer to your particular concern.
It is further important that you as students keep in contact with each other, because in your
studies you do not only learn from books and from teaching, you also learn from each other,
and thus in the common exchange among students. You can mutually revise and discuss your
papers, before handing them in. You can hint to literature that you know, and that might prove
useful for another student’s paper. First of all, giving feedback on e.g. the outline of a research
project or the argumentation of another student’s paper will also help you reflecting upon
your own work.
It is recommended to get feedback from the lecturers in consultation hours, after you have
received your grade.
For any further information – when to hand in your thesis, whom to contact, where to print,
and so forth – you may find all the required information on the website: https://www.uni-
flensburg.de/en/eucs/information-for-students/enrolled-students/ (under “Bachelor
thesis”).

6 Checklist

Question Is the (research) question clear and appropriate for a paper?

Supervisor Has the writing project been discussed in detail with the supervisor?
Structure Is the work clearly and properly structured? Does the work have the
right scope?
Argumentation Is the argumentation structure comprehensible? Are the arguments
correct and convincing?
State of Research Does the paper show the paper familiarity with the relevant literature
and the current state of research on the subject?
Independence Does the paper go beyond the mere paraphrase of literature and
shows it a certain autonomy in interpretation and argumentation? Is
the use of literature appropriate?
Citation Is the citation correct and does it comply with the conditions of
citation style?
Formatting Are the formal requirements met?
Language Is the style of academic work appropriate? Is the work free from
grammar and spelling mistakes?

Good luck and success for writing your paper!