lOMoARcPSD|43252164

Highway Engineering II

Civil Engineering (University of Nairobi)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II

Prerequisites: Highway Engineering I and Foundations Engineering I

Objective

The objective of the course is to impart knowledge on highway construction materials, design
and construction methods

Course Description

• Pavement types: flexible and rigid.

• Stresses in flexible pavements and wheel load characteristics.

• Construction materials: bituminous, origins, structures and classification and properties.

Polymers: structure, thermoplastics and thermosets, plasticers co-polymers, properties
and temperature effects. Cement bound granular materials.

• Design methods: empirical and analytical methods, Road Note (RN) 29, and RN 31,
RDM III.

• Base construction: stabilization using cement, lime, and bitumen, labour intensive
techniques, stage construction, Construction techniques; cut and fill, surfacing, drainage
systems.

• Introduction to road maintenance and construction plants.

Textbooks and References

1. Textbook:

1. Paul H. Wright and Karen Dixon; Highway Engineering. Wiley, 7th edt., 2003.
ISBN:047126461X
2. Traffic and Highway Engineering, Nicholas J. Garber and Lester A. Hoel, Cengage-
Engineering; 4 edition (2008) ISBN-10: 0495082503
3. Highway and traffic Vol.1 by C.A oflaherty
4. Highway and traffic Engineering in developing countries by Bant thageson
5. Principles of highway Eng and traffic analysis by Fred L. Mannering and Walter P.
6. Highway traffic analysis and design by R. J salter.
7. MOR. Design manual part III
8. Road note 29 and 31.

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 1

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

CHAPTER ONE

PAVEMENT TYPES
Pavements are provided to provide adequate bearing capacity, to accommodate the traffic
loading safely, economically and conveniently.
Roads can be constructed to have different qualities e.g
a) None engineering to earth roads
b) Earth road to engineering roads
With proper alignment there are three types of pavements:-
✓ Flexible pavements
✓ Semi-rigid pavements – built from lean concrete (road base)
✓ Rigid/concrete pavements - Portland cement concrete.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
This consists of several layers, namely:-
i) Surfacing -wearing course, WC
-Base course, BC
ii) Road - Bituminous materials
- Lime treated materials
- Artificial slags – treated materials
- Natural slags
iii) Sub-base – Natural materials
iv) Sub-grade – Earth works

Surfacing –WC
Road base -BC

Sub-base

Sub-grade

- Material quality increases from sub-grade to surfacing

- Stiffness of flexible pavements should be in the range of 4,000 – 10000 kg/m2. This is
taken as the E- value of the pavement materials. For semi-rigid materials the E-values
ranges from 25000 – 100000 kg/m2 and for rigid pavement the E-value is > 200000
kg/m2.
- Flexible pavement may or may not have a sub-base depending on the quality of the
material of the sub-grade
Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 2

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

- It’s load carrying capacity is brought about by the load distributing characteristics of
the layered system.

RIGID PAVEMENTS
- May or may not have bituminous surfacing and granular sub-base.

Surfacing
Concrete slab (base)
Sub-base

Sub-grade

Functions of pavement layers

a) Sub-grade
- Usually the natural existing earth if it is suitable; if not then suitable soil is borrowed
or imported from somewhere else .i.e natural insitu soils or imported improved
materials.
- CBR is classified into three broad categories namely:-
i. Stiff e.g marrum or decomposed rock with CBR >30%.
ii. Average material – compacted and drained material with CBR in the range of
9-30%
iii. Sensitive material – effect of moisture is much more pronounced than in either
stiff or average soils e.g black cotton soils CBR <5%
- Classes of subgrade are from S1, -S6 and have CBRs of
S1 – 2-5%
S2 – 5-10%
S3 – 7-13%
S4 – 10-18%
S5 – 15-50%
S6 > 30%

i. Sub-base
- For load and stress distribution and is made from a stronger materials than subgrade
materials.
- A drainage layer – granular or high permeability
- Used as a construction plat form – protects sub-grade from construction traffic.

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 3

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

c) Road-Base
- Main structural layer of the road
- Graded crushed stones (GSC) dense bituminous macadam (DBM) or had packed
stones (HPS) are used for their construction.

d) Surfacing
- Consists of two layers namely:
• Wearing course
• Base course (binder course)
- Provides riding surface safely, economically and conveniently.
- Aqua-planning is important for direct contact of tyre and surface of road.

Car wheel
Road surface
Water layer

- Water proof to maintain the lower granular layers

- For stress or load distribution and is dependent on the thickness of the layer.
Thin layer < 50mm – No load distribution
Thick layer > 100mm – load distribution
- Apart from bitumen, asphaltic concrete (AC) can also be used for construction. In AC,
the aggregate size is < 20mm.
- Surface dressing, most common and cheapest is done for surfacing i.e gravel the road
and spray with bitumen.
- Slurry seal is used for surfacing
• Bitumen emulsion and fine aggregate plus cement is used (cap-seal-single
layer of surface dressing).
• It forms a good water proofing, riding surface and is cheaper.
• Layers of 25mm and above use AC.
• In cold zones use capping layer between subgrade and subbase to prevent frost
action on subgrade (RN 29 provides for this)

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 4

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

AIR PORT PAVEMENTS

- Design principles same as those of road pavement
- Design parameters different from those of road pavement
- Their design will take higher stresses hence the layers are thicker; as the wheel loads
are higher.
- This varies with magnitude and repetition of wheel loads.
- Outer wheel loads is at least 5m from the edge or shoulder of the runway while that
for roads is 1m.

ROAD DESIGN VARIABLES

i. Load variables – wind load
- Magnitude of wheel load (WL)
- Location of WL
- Tyre / contact pressure configuration of axles or wheels STD axle
loads (SAL)
ii. Regional variables
- Temperature, humidity etc.
iii. Structural variables
iv. Performance variables
v. Cost variables.
- Maintenance – periodic
- Routine
- Accident costs
- Construction costs – Labour
- Materials.

TRAFFIC LOADING CHARACTERISTICS

These includes:-
i. Tyre pressure
ii. Magnitude of wheel load
iii. Number of repetitions of wheel load
iv. Load configuration – wheel
-Axle
v. Moving loads
vi. Edge loading and influence of shoulders

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 5

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

TYRE PRESSURE
- Influenced by loading
If Pt = tyre pressure
Pc = contact pressure
Then generally Pc = (1.3 – 1.5) Pt

wheelload P
Contact Area Ac = and a = where P = Total wheel load
Pc Pc
a=Loading surface radius

et Bituminous layer

ez Granular/semi rigid
layer

For granular layer

et = horizontal tensile stress at bottom of top layer
ez= vertical compressive stress at top of subgrade
For a semi – rigid layer
et = Horizontal tensile stress at the bottom of semi-rigid layer;
For a reinforced road base, the reinforcement takes the tensile stresses.The road therefore
fails by fatigue cracking.

WHEEL LOAD MAGNITUDE

Wheel load causes deflection on the road of Xx10-2mm, where X is in 10s or 100s e.g 120 x
10-2 mm.
A deflection can be due to elastic, plastic or consolidated deformations. Visco – elastic
deformations also cause such deformations.

 e = elastic deformation

e  p = plastic deformation

p

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 6

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

 p is plastic deformation due to expulsion of water and air from the pores accompanied by
movement of particles (viscous flow). Consolidation is a deformation due to expulsion of
both air and water without movement of particles (densification).

WHEEL OR AXLE CONFIGURATION

Single wheel
Dual wheel assembly

Axle

Axle assembly

Conversion of dual wheel to equivalent single wheel unit, is such that

PZ 5
Pe = +P
(Z )
5
2
+S 2 2

Where
p = load on each of two wheels of dual wheel system
Pe = equivalent single wheel load
S= distance from centre to centre between the two wheels.
Z = Depth below the surface of the pavement.

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 7

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

STERZAGHIS THEORY
States that stresses depend on
i. Depth, Z
ii. Radius of circular loaded area (a)
iii. Contact pressure (Pc)

P P
Pc = Therefore a = where P = Total wheel load
a 2 Pc

Z
But = C where C=is a constant
a
C
Z = R P where R =
Pc
1
log Z = logR+ logP
2

Log P

Log Z

NUMBER OF AXLES
Single axle system causes less damage to roads than dual axle systems.

Moving loads

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 8

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

- Stationary or slow moving loads causes more damage than fast moving loads.
- They apply their weight on a given area for a much longer period than fast moving loads
e.g climbing lanes.

Pavement
Stress thickness
T

25kph Speed N No. Of Loads (log)

Generally
n
1
N = K 
e

Where N= cumulative no. of load repetitions

e = strain
n,k = constant which depend on material xtics used for road surfacing.

Log N = log k – n loge

Log e

Log N

STANDARD AXLE LOAD

The SAL = 8160 kg
(AASHTO)
The equivalent factor, Ef, is estimated from

a
 L 
Ef =  i 
 8160 

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 9

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Where a = constant depending on load, structural, regional, env’tal, performance or

economical variables.

a, lies between 3.6 – 6.0

Li = Axle load
For MOPW a = 4.50
RN 29 a= 4.0
RN 31 a= 4.55
For axle load, Li = 10000 kg
For MOPW design
4.50
 10000
Ef =   = 2.5
 8160 
i.e every single axle load is equivalent to:
2.5 x std axle load = 2.5 SAL
And for Li = 20,000 kg
Ef = 56.5

ADT or AADT
Determine axle load spectrum in terms of standard load per vehicle.
 (1 + r )n − 1 
CSA = Pi * Ef * 365  

 r 
Where
CSA = cumulative standard axles
r = growth rate of commercial vehicles
n = design life in years of road pavement
Pi = ADT
Ef = equivalent factor

Example

Using MOPW design criteria determine

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 10

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

i. No. of Std axle per commercial vehicles, CV

ii. No. of Std axle per Cumulative Axle, CA
For a total of 429 commercial vehicles in the survey done as shown in the table below
Axle load in range (T) No. of axles
3-5 73
5-7 264
7-9 529
9-11 278
11-13 131
13-15 115
15-17 60
17-19 17
19-21 6
Total 1473

Solution
Axle
load in No. of Axle
range No. of single load
(T) axles Ef axles Mid
3-5 73 0.04 3 4
5-7 264 0.25 66 6
7-9 529 0.91 484 8
9-11 278 2.50 694 10
11-13 131 5.67 743 12
13-15 115 11.35 1305 14
15-17 60 20.70 1242 16
17-19 17 35.17 598 18
19-21 6 56.50 339 20
Total 1473 Total 5474

5474
i. CSA = =12.8
CV 429
5474
ii. CSA CA = =3.7
1473
CHAPTER TWO

STRESS DISTRIBUTION
(Theoretical analyses of finite elements in pavement).

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 11

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

- Involves analysis and calculation of pavement response and performance

- From classic theory:
Stress
E=
Strain
RadialStrain
And passion ratio  =
LongitudinalStrain

Q
Q

X
a b
Z
L

(i) Uniaxial case

• Only axial loading - axles
Q
Stress  =
Area
x
Strain e x = where x is changes in length
L
 Q L
 E= = .
ex ab x

a
Similarly in the y direction e y =
a
b
Similarly in the z direction e z =
b
And e y = e z

ey ez
Therefore  = =
ex ex

(ii) 3 – Dimensional case

Assumptions
(a) The material is elastic
(b) The material is homogeneous

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 12

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

(c) Isotropic material - has same characteristics in all directions.

z
y

x
x
X
a b
Z
L

z y

In this case the strain in X- direction like in the other two directions has three components
namely
x
i. Due to stress  x =
E
y
ii. Due to stress by  y = − 
E
z
iii. Due to stress by  z = − 
E

Therefore e x =
1
E

 x −  ( y +  z ) 
Similarly, e y =
1
E

 y −  ( x +  z ) 
And e z =
1
E

 z −  ( x +  y ) 

From the above strain equations

e x  +1 − −   x 
  1  
e y  = E − +1 −   y 
e  − − + 1  z 
 z
Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Stress Page 13
Strain Stiffness Matrix Matrix
Matrix Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

volume
Volumetric stain =
volume
ev=ex+ey+ez

Volumetric stress  v =
1
( x +  y +  z )
3
VolumetricStress  v  x +  y +  z
Bulk modulus K = = =
VolumetricStrain ev 3(e x + e y + e z )

Example
A pavement element of 100 x 150 x 200mm was subjected to an equal all round pressure of
120 KN /m2 and an axial load of 2.5KN in the x-direction. The decrease in length and the
increase in length in lateral direction are 0.92 mm in the x-direction, 0.27 mm in the y-
direction and 0.18mm in the z – direction.
Calculate E,  and K.

Solution

150

2.5KN
100
2.5KN

200

2.5
Additional pressure in X-direction = = 167KN / m 2
0.1x0.15
Total pressure in X-direction,  x = 120+167=287KN/m2

And  y = 120KN/m2

 z = 120KN/m2

+ 0.92
ex = = 0.0046
200
− 0.27
ey = = −0.0018
150

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 14

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

− 0.18
ez = = −0.0018
100
Bulk modulus
VolumetricStress  v  x +  y +  z 287 + 120 + 120
K= = = = = 175.67mN / m 2
VolumetricStrain ev 3(e x + e y + e z ) 3(0.0046 − 0.0018 − 0.0018)

From the matrix equation, find E, and 

0.0046 1 1 -µ -µ 287
-0.0018 = - -µ 1 -µ 120
-0.0018 E -µ -µ 1 120

And
E=38.3mN/m2
-µ=0.46

In pavements E and µ are not constant but varying as functions of :-

i. Temperature – mainly in bituminous materials
ii. Moisture conditions – mainly in granular materials
iii. Loading conditions – speed/rate of loading and magnitude
Theory of analysis should be dependent on the basic properties of material behaviour.

Chapter 3
UNDER LOADING
1) Linear/Non – linear elastic material
Linear elastic Material

Stress
 Non-Linear elastic Material

Stress e

2) Time dependency of strain at constant stress

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 15

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Non Viscous
Deformation

Strain,
e
Non Viscous
Deformation

Load time
Load Release

3) Degree to which strain is recovered on load removal

- Elastic – linear
- Non- linear
- Plastic – air /water removal from pores accompanied by movement of particles.

Strain
e

Loading
Load time
release

Normally
shearstress 
Shear modulus G= =
shearstrain 
E
For elastic materials G =
2(1 +  )

BOUSSINESQ THEORY (single layer system)

Z
z
Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 r Page 16

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

r
r

Where
 z =Axial stress
 r =Radial stress

Assumptions
1. Elastic material i.e E and µ are constant
2. The layer extends indefinitely in the lateral directions and in depth.
3. The material is homogeneous
– Same properties throughout
- Material is Isotropic – same properties in all directions.
4. Point load is modified to UDL over a circular area at the top of the pavement.
Vertical stress,  z , along the axis of loading is evaluated from

 
z3
 z = p 1 − 
 
( )
3

 a2 + z2 2 

Where
P=Surface pressure
a=Radius of circular loaded area
z=Depth below the surface

Radial stress (Lateral),  r , is

p 2(1 +  )z z3 
r = (1 + 2 ) − + 
z
 (
a2 + z2 2
1
)
a2 + z2 ( )
3
2 


1 − 2  2(1 +  )z 3z 3 
Shear stress  = p  + − 
 4
1
(
2 a2 + z2 2 4 a2 + z2 ) ( )
3
2 


 z − r
Maximum shear stress = =
2

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 17

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

p (1 +  )z 2 
(
Surface deflection  s =  2 − 2 2 a 2 + z 2 )( ) 1
2
− ( )
+  + 2 − 1 z 
2

E
 (a 2
+ z2 ) 1
2 

For µ=0.5
3 pa 2
s =
(
2E a 2 + z 2 ) 1
2

BURMISTER THEORY (2 LAYER SYSTEM)

Loading P

Pavement h

ASSUMPTIONS
The assumptions make in this theory includes:-
1. All layers have infinite lateral dimensions
2. Full friction is developed between the two layers or no friction al all is developed i.e it
is either perfectly rough or perfectly smooth
Generally the deflection is given by
pa
= Fw
E2

1.5 pa
But surface deflection is given by  s =
E2

Where P = Pressure applied at surface

a = Radius of circular loaded area
E2 = E-value of weaker materials
Fw = Displacement factor depending on thickness of upper layer and the
E1
modular ratio of the two layers i.e
E2
P

s

i

pa
i = Fi
E2

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 18

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Where Fi=depends on depth and offset distance

And
 p = s − i

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 19

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 20

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

EXAMPLE
Estimate the surface deflection  s under the centre of a loaded wheel if the load is 45 KN

applied through a circular area of radius a of 150mm of a two layer pavement with the top
layer of depth 300mm. (E1 = 100 MN /M2 and E2=20 MN/M2) also calculate  p and  i

Solution
Use respective charts
(i)
pa z r
s = Fw since z=0, a=150mm and r=0, then = 0 and = 0
E2 a a
From the curves Fw=1.5
pa 45x0.15x1.5
Then  s = Fw =  20000 = 7.16mm
E2  (0.15)2
(ii)
pa z 300
i = Fi since z=300mm, a=150mm and E1=100, E2=20 then = = 2 and
E2 a 150

E1 100
= =5
E2 20

From the curves Fi=0.2

pa 45x0.15x0.2
Then  i = Fi =  20000 = 0.95mm
E2  (0.15)2
(iii)
 p =  s −  i = 7.16 − 0.95 = 6.21mm

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 21

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Asst 1

1. A pavement element of 700 x 500 x 350mm ( x-y-z-direction) is subjected to an equal

all round pressure of 320 KN/m2 and an axial compressive load of 5.8 KN in the x-
direction. The changes in length are -2.4 mm in x-direction, +0.93 mm in y-direction
and +0.65 mm z-direction. Determine the:
(a) Stress Matrix
(b) Strain Matrix
(c) Stiffness Matrix
(d) Bulk Modulus

2. A two layer flexible pavement structure is loaded on the surface with 4100 kg whweel
load uniformly applied over a circular area of diameter 300mm. The top layer has an
Elastic Modulus of 250 MN/m2, thickness of 300m and Poisson’s ratio of 0.5. The
bottom layer has an Elastic Modulus of 50 MN/m2 and Poisson’s ration of 0.35. Using
Boussinesq’s single layer theory, calculate, at a depth equivalent to the bottom of top
layer in the two layer structure the:-
(a) Vertical Stress
(b) Radical Stress
(c) Maximum Shear Stress
(d) Surface Deflection.

3. A two-way rural road passing through varying terrain with subgrade soil of CBR of
10 is proposed to be designed to bitumen standard. Axle load surveys indicate that
expected traffic loading on opening road ( in both directions) with a 60/40 percent
directional distribution would be as in the table below:-
Axle Load (tonnes) 6.35 7.26 8.16 9.07 9.98 10.89 11.79 12.70
No. of axles expected in both 340 316 246 197 108 76 32 20
directions per day

Historical traffic data indicate an annual traffic growth rate of 5%. Determine the pavement
structure for this road section for a design period of 20 years using RN 29 design criteria.

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 22

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Chapter 4

METHOD OF EQUIVALENTS THICKNESS (MET)

Odemarks Method
The Method is used to transform a double layer system to a single layer system.
The method assumes that the flexure of the layers remains the same i.e the value of E, µ and
h remain the same.
The flexural stiffness FS=f(I,E,µ)
bh3
Where I = Moment of inertia = = Kh 3
12
E = Young’s Modulus
µ = Poissons ratio
EI Kh 3 E
=
FS =
( 1−  2) (1−  2 )
Consider two layers of stiffness modulii E1, and E2 poison ratio µ 1, and µ 2 and thickness h1
and h2 as having the same flexural stiffness, then

Kh13 E1 Kh23 E 2
=
(1 − 12 ) (
1 −  22 )
1
 E1  1 − 2
 3

The transformed thickness, he 2 = h1   2

 . This is called the equivalent thickness
 E2  1 − 
2
1 
he2 is the equivalent thickness that would have the same flexural stiffness as the layer h1

E1, µ 1, h1

E2, µ 2, h2=infinity

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 23

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Example
WL=40KN, a=150mm

E1=300MN/m2
µ 1=0.45
h1=250mm

E2=60MN/m2
µ 2=0.35
h2=infinity

Calculate
-  s ,  i and  p using the Burminster theory

- Also estimate  s and  z at the top of the bottom layer,  r at the bottom of top layer

using Bossinesq theory.

Solutions
 s = 2.122mm

 i =0.218mm

 p =1.844.

he2=441 (say he2=450mm)

Then
 s = 0.697mm

 z =82.72 KN/m2
 r =-2.16 KN/m2

E  1 − u 22 
1
   
1

 = = 250 300  1 − 0.35
3 2 3
he 2 = h1  1     =441=450mm2
 E2  1 − u1
2
   60  1 − 0.452  
   

BOUSSINESS Q THEORY

Work out as discussed in class

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 24

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

SHEAR STRESS AND FAILURE

Criteria of failure by
- Maximum principle stresses
- Maximum shear stresses
- Total direct strains
- Total shear strains

i) Shear failure in the subgrade

This is caused by consideration of principle and shear stress and is given by:
S = C +  n tan 

S =Failure stress
C =Unit cohesion
 n =Direct/Principle Stress
 =Angle of internal friction of the material

Surfacing

Granular layer RB/SB

Shear failure Homogeneous Subgrade

curve S

n

Shear failure occurs in the subgrade when the applied shear and the direct stresses are in
excess of the subgrade shear strength.

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 25

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

2. Shear failure within the pavement stratum

P

Surfacing

Granular layer RB/SB

This occurs either within the road base on within the subbase layers.

3. Failure within the bituminous layer

Occurs when materials within the loaded areas move outwards or inwards when squeezed
load.
P

Surfacing

Granular layer RB/SB

This may be due to mix design problem resulting in

- Instability (Marshall) – “Marshall quotient”
- Flow (plasticity)
- Improper compaction.

Factors of pavement Design to check shear failure

- Overall thickness of pavement
- Quality of material to protect subgrade
i.e
(a) Overall pavement thickness and materials quality should be such that the subgrade is
protected.
(b) Shear strength of construction material should be higher at every level of pavement
structure than the stresses transmitted (from the surface loading).

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 26

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

(c) Bituminous layers should be of sufficient stiffness to accommodate the applied

stresses at varying temperatures and loading conditions i.e quality and quantity of
bitumen.
(d) Shear failure curve is assumed to follow coulomb’s law.

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 27

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Chapter 5
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN
The designs are done for:-
i) Efficiency
ii) Economy (cost savings)
iii) Safety
iv) Limiting response parameters not to be exceeded.

Element of thickness design

i. Traffic loading
ii. Environmental condition
iii. Material characteristics
Traffic is considered in terms of standard axle over the design period and includes current
traffic, generated traffic, attracted traffic and development traffic. This contributes to the
average daily traffic.

DESIGN METHODS
These are divided into groups: Namely:
GROUP A
- Empirical design methods
- Doesn’t consider soil strengths
- Based on past experience and soil consistency; PI, LL, PL, PM
Where
PI = Plasticity index
LL = Liquid limit
PL = Plastic limit
PM = Plasticity modules.

GROUP B
Is engineering method considering
i. Soil strength - CBR
- UCS – Ultimate consolidated strength.
ii Shear strength
iii Modules of subgrade

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 28

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

GROUP C
Partly based on soil test and partly on past experience i.e semi – empirical

GROUP D
Wholly theoretical method - Burnister
- Boussinesq

GROUP A
Group index method (GI)

This depends on:-

i) Moisture content
ii) Density of the pavement
iii) Compaction and consistency of the subgrade. Consistency is dependent on grading
and plasticity of the material.
Design equation
GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where
a = Portion (%) of subgrade material passing sieve number 200, greater than 35 and not
exceeding 75 expressed as positive whole number from 0-40 e.g if 52% passes number
200 then a = 52-35 = 17. If 30% passes sieve No. 200 then a=30-35=0

b = Portion (%) of subgrade material passing sieve number 200, greater than 15 and not
exceeding 55 expressed as positive whole number from 0-40 e.g if 52% passes number
200 then b = 52-15 =37. If 10% passes sieve No. 200 then a=10-15=0

c = Portion (%) of numerical liquid limit greater than 40 and not exceeding 60 expressed as
a +ve whole number between 0-20.
d = Portion of numerical plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30 expressed as
+ve whole number from 0-20.

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 29

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 30

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

ASSUMPTIONS
-Subgrade compassion is 95% MDD – Maximum dry density).
-Subbase and roadbase compassion is 100% of MDD
-Subgrade moisture content is much above the ground moisture content and its level much
above the G-water level usually a minimum of 1 m above the G.L.

Example
A subgrade of wet soil has the following characteristics LL= 48%, PI = 23%. The grading is
such that 100% passes ¾” sieve, 58% passes sieve NO.7 48% passes sieve NO. 36 and 42%
passes sieve No. 200. Determine the thickness of the subbase, road base for an expected
traffic of 250 cv/day if the surfacing is 2” Asphalt concrete (AC)

Solution
GI METHOD
GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where
a = Portion (%) of subgrade material passing sieve number 200, greater than 35 and not
exceeding 75 expressed as positive whole number from 0-40
= 42-35 = 7.

b = Portion (%) of subgrade material passing sieve number 200, greater than 15 and not
exceeding 55 expressed as positive whole number from 0-40
= 42-15 =27.

c = Portion (%) of numerical liquid limit greater than 40 and not exceeding 60 expressed as
a +ve whole number between 0-20.
=48-40=8.
d = Portion of numerical plasticity index greater than 10 and not exceeding 30 expressed as
+ve whole number from 0-20.
=23-10=23.

GI = 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd = 0.2x7 + 0.005x7x8 + 0.01x27x23 = 5.2

Using graph
Sub base thickness = 5.2”
Roadbase “ = total thickness-subbase thickness-surfacing = 14.2-5.2-2=7.0”

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 31

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

GROUP B DESIGN METHODS

In group B design method, soil strength test is used and is determined by
– CBR
– UCS
– Shear strength
– Modulus of subgrade
CBR DEISGN METHODS
- Developed between 1928-1930 by California state highway department.
-The thickening of each layer depends on CBR
CBR is the force/pressure required to cause a penetration of 0.1” (2.54mm) or 0.2” (5.08mm)
as a percentage of that required to cause the same penetration in a standard material (with
CBR of 100%) whichever is greater

Std Curve
Y2

Test Curve
X2
Force or Y1
pressure
X1

0.1” 0.2”
Penetration

X1 Y
CBR = x100% or CBR = 1 x100% whichever is greater
X2 Y2
However experiment errors are committed and correction need to be made for the errors.

Y2 Std Curve

Corrected curve
X
Force or Y21
pressure Experiment curve
X1

0.1” 0.2”
Penetration

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 32

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

The error is corrected by transposing the y-axis to the point where a tangent drawn at the
point of steepest gradient on the experimental curve touches the x-axis. That point is then
taken as the zero penetration point.
Modification
This was prompted by the environmental and traffic loading conditions such that :-
- RN 29 is used in UK
- RN 31 is for tropical regions
- MoPW is used in Kenya (cotalogs).
- AASHTO – US

PROCEDURE OF USING CBR

(1) Determine traffic flow CV/day in both directions
(2) Determine the number of CVs in each group. Then calculate the total loading in terms
of cumulative number of equivalent standard wheel loads.
(3) Select the appropriate design curves to determine the thickness of a given layer for the
respective CBR.
(4) Allow for use of interior material by using the equation

100
ti = t 2
CBRi

Ti thickness of interior material

T2- thickness of material with CBR = 100%
CBRi = CBR of interior material

RN 29
- Developed by TRRL (Traffic and road research laboratory) based on full scale pavement
test.
-Mainly for British conditions (- environment, type of soil, loading conditions)

BASIS OF DESIGN
Soil strength (CBR)
Traffic loading (SA)

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 33

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

DESIGN PROCEDURE
(1) Chose design life for minimum maintenance (Routine and regular)
(2) Choose traffic growth rate depending on development of the region
(3) Choose pavement type – whether flexible ( 10-20 yrs)
- Whether rigid ( 20-40 yrs)
(4) Estimate the design traffic by counting Average daily traffic in year zero ADT0 to
Year X, ADTx i.e ADT0 - ADTx

i= x
ADT x =  ADT0 (1 + r ) i
i =0

x
=  ADT0 (1 + r ) dx
i

=
ADT0
log(1 + r )

(1 + r )x − 1 
Bur log(1+r)=r
 (1 + r )x − 1
ADTx = ADT0  
 r 
CSAx=ADTx*365*Ef
RN 29 is limited to 100 MSA

(5) The pavement structure is determined on the basis of material quality

- Subgrade CBR
- Traffic loading

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 34

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 35

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 36

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

EXAMPLE
Design life = 20 yrs
Annual growth rate = 5%
Initial ADT (ADTo) = 2400 cv/day
Directional distribution = 60:40
Axle loading survey = 2.25 SA/CV ----Ef
SB – CBR = 30%
Subgrade CBR = 6%
Road base material is DBM
Determine the pavement structure
Solution
60
ADTo= x 2400 = 1440
100
 (1 + r )x − 1  (1 + 0.05)20 − 1
ADTx = ADT0   = 1440  = 47615
 r   0.05 

CSAx=47615*365*2.25=39MSA

Graph graphs above

Subbase = 230mm
Roadbase = 215mm
Surfacing = 100mm

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 37

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

RN 31
-It was developed by TRRL for tropical and subtropical climatic regions
-It serves upto CSA of 2.5 MSA
4.55
 L 
-The equivalent factor, E f =  i  where Liaxle load in kg
 8160 
N/B
The exponent of Ef is different from that of RM 29 as that of RN 29 is 4.0. This difference is
due to differences in loading, material characteristics, climatic characteristics, cost etc.

Design Procedure
Same as that of RN 29 ie
1) Design life – 10-20 yrs for flexible pavements
20 – 40 yrs for rigid pavements
2) Traffic loading – determined by CSA by conducting traffic census or axle loading
survey.
3) Pavement thickness – determined on the basis of subgrade strength (CBR), traffic
loading and the strength of other pavement materials
There are:
• Single stage or one shot construction design
• Stage construction.

Stage construction
This is step by step improvement of the road structure during its life as expenditure is
justified by the demand of increased traffic and the objective is to provide in an efficient
economic manner; adequate services to the traffic through out the development of the
highway. Thus at an early stage, the pavement will be formed entirely on lower grade
material nut at the final stage, this same material may only form part of all of the road base
and/or subbase of bituminous surface or concrete road design to carry heavy traffic.
In stage construction the recommended procedure is to provide 150mm for the roadbase and
50mm for the surfacing to take up to 0.5mSA then later apply 75mm GCS or 50mmAC to
take an additional traffic loading up to 2.5MSA (CSA)

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 38

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 39

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

EXAMPLE
Design life = 15 yrs
Traffic Annual growth rate = 5%
Initial ADT (ADTo) = 125 cv/day
Equivalent factor = 2.15 SA/CV ----Ef
Subbase CBR = 35%
Subgrade CBR = 6%
Road base material is DBM
Determine the pavement structure by single stage construction
Solution
 (1 + r )x − 1  (1 + 0.05)15 − 1
ADTx = ADT0   = 125  = 21.6
 r   0.05 

CSAx=21.6*365*2.15=2.12MSA

Graph graphs of RN31

Subbase = 220mm
Roadbase = 150mm
Surfacing = 50mm

Or
Subbase = 220mm
Roadbase = 200mm
Surfacing = DSDmm---Double surface dressing

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 40

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

MoPW DESIGN METHOD

Like the other methods, it encompasses

i) Choosing the design life – same as for RN 29 or RN31

ii) Traffic loading – same

But traffic is categorised depending on loading into T1-T2 where

T1=25-60MSA

T2=10-25MSA

T3=3-10MSA

T4=1-3MSA

T5=0.25-1MSA

4.50
 L 
-The equivalent factor, E f =  i  where Liaxle load in kg
 8160 
iii) Pavement thickness, based on the strength of subgrade.
Subgrade are classified in terms of CBR value
CBR-----S1 to S6
S1 is the weakest material
S6 is the strongest material

S1=2-5%

S2=5-10%

S3=7-13%

S4=10-18%

S5=15-30%

S6>30%

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 41

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 42

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])

 lOMoARcPSD|43252164

ECV 409 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II CIVIL ENG

EXAMPLE

Soil sample collected on trial pits dug at intervals of 500m along a road alignment, shows the
CBR to be between 10-20 with a mean CBR of 14%

Design life is 15yrs

CSA is 2.5MSA

Subbase is of CBR ranging between 35%-55% (45% mean). Determine the pavement
structure using RDM III design methods

Solution

Traffic loading = 2.5MSA

-----------------------------------Then, Traffic class = T4

Subgrade CBR=14%

----------------------------------Then Subgrade class = S4

From RDM III Design Catalogue

Subbase = 175mm

Roadbase = 150mm

Surfacing = SD

Dr. (Eng) Tulatia ©2023 Page 43

Downloaded by Semalign Temesgen ([email protected])