EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER:
ROCKS- is a naturally occurring aggregate of minerals and a certain non- mineral material such
as fossils and glass.
Formation of Rocks-Tracing the birth and transformation of rocks will take us two sets of
physical processes.
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES- refers to geologic processes that take place below the Earth's
surface and the interior of the planet.
EXOGENIC PROCESSES- refer to those that take place on the Earth's surface.
LITHOSPHERE- is a solid and it is the outermost layer of our planet.
THREE TYPES OF ROCKS
IGNEOUS ROCKS- a rock formed by the cooling and crystallization of magma (molten rock) at
or below the earth's surface.
TWO TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK- cools quickly and as result these are fine grained or have lack
of crystal growth.
(VOLCANIC ROCKS)- if magma erupts at the Earth's surface and solidifies upon contact with
the atmosphere or ocean.
INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK- are formed from magma that cools slowly and as a result these
rocks are coarse grained.
(PLUTONIC ROCKS)- if magma solidifies underground.
BATHOLITHS(PLUTONS)- on some occasion, they are discovered lying on the Earth's surface
because the soil material that once covered them had eroded.
SILLS- they are generally smaller and are formed horizontally.
DIKES- they are generally smaller and formed slanted.
EXAMPLES OF PLUTONIC AND VOLCANIC ROCKS.
PLUTONIC- granite, gabbro, dunite, diorite, granodiorite, syenite, peridotite.
VOLCANIC- basalt, andesite, rhyolite, obsidian, pumice, scoria, tuff.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- are formed from fragments of other rocks, its accumulates, solidifies
and ultimately transform into a compact, solid rocks
THREE TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- like sandstone form from clasts or pieces of other rock.
ORGANIC (BIOLOGICAL) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- biological materials like plants, shells and
bones that are compressed into rock.
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- like limestone, halite and flint form from chemical
precipitation.
EXAMPLE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
CONGLOMERATE- made up of rounded pebbles which are cemented together.
BRECCIA- made up of angular pebbles which are cemented together.
SANDSTONE- sand cemented together forming solid stone.
SILTSTONE- silt cemented together to form a solid stone.
SHALE- similar to siltstone but is composed of even finer grains of silt.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS- is when pre existing sedimentary or igneous rock undergoes
significant heat and pressure deep within the Earth's crust.
Combination of two Greeks words; Meta means after and Morphe means shape.
TWO TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
FOLIATED ROCKS- when a rock with flat or elongated minerals is put under immense
pressure, the minerals line up in layers.
NON-FOLIATED ROCKS- are formed the same way but they do not contain the minerals that
tend to line up under pressure thus do not have the layered appearance of foliated rocks
EXAMPLE OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS-
GNEISS- its foliations display alternating dark and light color bands, called gneiss banding.
SLATE- fine grained foliated metamorphic rocks derived from shale sedimentary rocks.
MARBLE- non foliated metamorphic rocks form from limestone
SCHIST- medium grade metamorphic rocks with medium to large flat sheet like grains.
QUARTZITE- hard on foliated metamorphic rocks formed from quartz sandstone.
MINERALS- are naturally occurring inorganic solids that have a crystalline structure and definite
chemical composition.
DEFINING CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS.
HOMOGENOUS- it is made up of components which are the same in structure and in chemical
and physical properties.
NATURALLY- formed by process found in nature.
INORGANIC- means the chemical composition of minerals does not contain carbon bonded to
hydrogen atom.
SOLID- shape is definite and stays as it is unless physically deformed by force.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION- this means we can write a particular chemical formula for a
mineral.
CRYSTAL LATTICE- the internal arrangement of its atoms, ions or molecules is orderly
arranged in the form of lattice.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A MINERAL
COLOR- absorb certain wavelengths of light, minerals reflect a particular range of colors.
STREAK- the color revealed by the mineral when it is in pulverized form.
LUSTER- refers to how the mineral surface scatters light. A mineral with high luster is very
reflective.
NON-METALLIC MINERALS ARE:
ADAMANTINE- brilliant such as a cut diamond.
VISTREOUS- glassy
PEARLY- has the sheen if pearl or inside of the shell
RESINOUS- appearance of resin or tree sap silky; slightly reflective.
DULL- not significantly reflective.
HARDNESS- to measure of the relative ability of a mineral to resist scratching.
FRIEDRICH MOHS- in 1800's Mohs a minerologist, developed a scale by which minerals can
be rank based on their relative hardness.
DIAMOND —---- 10
CORUNDUM(RUBY)---------9
TOPAZ—----------8
QUARTZ—--------7
FELDSPAR—-----6
STEEL/KNIFE, GLASS—---- 5.5
APATITE—--------5
FLOURITE—-----4
COPPER COIN—-----3.5
CALCITE—--------3
FINGERNAIL—---2.5
GYPSUM—-------2
TALC—-------------1
SPECIFIC GRAVITY- density of a material is measured as the ratio between the weight of
volume of the mineral and the weight of an equal of water.
Minerals and there specific gravity:
Borax <2
Obsidian 2.3-3.0
Quartz 2.6-2.7
Amethyst 2.63-2.65
Biotite 2.8-3.2
Azurite 3.7-3.9
Chalcopyrite 4.1-4.3
Pyrite 4.9-5.2
Hematite 4.9-5.3
Galena 7.4-7.6
CRYSTAL HABIT- the general shape or character of a crystal or cluster of crystal that grew
unimpeded.
CLEAVAGE- the way a mineral breaks. In particular, it refers to the tendency of a mineral to
break along planes of weakness in its atomic structure.
MINING- is the process of extracting valuable minerals from the earth.
PROCESS OF MINING MINERALS
EXPLORATION- locating prospective where minerals can be found.
MODELING THE ORE BODY- mapping the location where minerals can be found, mapping the
distribution of minerals obtaining sample from the field to establish the grade of minerals
IDENTIFYING AND ADDRESSING IMPACTS- weighing potential benefits, such as company
profit and employment opportunities against impacts to the environment and the community
DESIGNING AND CONSTRUCTING A MINE- deciding and constructing the mining facility. The
two general mining methods are OPEN PIT MINING AND UNDERGROUND MINING.
OPERATING A MINE- concerned with the management of the mining operations while
observing the regulations that aim to mitigate the impact of mining on the environment.
ORE PROCESSING- implementing the industrial processes to extract minerals from the ore.
CLOSING AND RECLAIMING A MINE- reclaiming all disturbed ground so that the land will
continue to benefit the community and the environment.
METHOD TO EXTRACT MINERALS:
SURFACE MINING- is removing minerals from the surface of EARTH'S where mineral deposits
are located.
SUBSURFACE MINING- is mining that requires constructing tunnels to reach mineral deposits
deep below the Earth's surface.
EXTRACTING MINERAL FROM THE ORE BODY.
MINERAL ORE- a rock that contains sufficient minerals with important metals, such as copper,
gold, silver, nickel, etc.
OVERBURDEN- the thin surface that covers mineral deposits.
TAILINGS- refuse that is left after the ore has been processed.
STRATIFICATION OF ROCKS
STRATIFICATION OR BEDDING- is the general layout of the strata of the rock. This layering is
visible on the side of the mountains and huge rocks.
A STRATUM (PLURAL STRATA)- is a layering of the sedimentary rock or soil with internally
consistent characteristics which distinguish it from the other layers. It is also called a BED.
FORMATION OF ROCKS
Each stratum of rocks is a layer of compacted and cemented sediments.
METHODS OF DATING ROCKS
LAW OF UNIFORMITARIANISM- proposed during the age of the Enlightenment by JAMES
HUTTON, a scottish doctor and farmer.
It means that the natural laws have remained the same throughout time.
RELATIVE DATING- is done through comparison, and what it produces is a chronological rank
of objects or events in terms of relative time occurence.
GEOLOGICAL SEQUENCE- is a listing of geological objects or events in a column of rock.
LAW OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY- first proposed by Danish geological pioneer NICHOLAS
STENO in the 17th century. The law states that layers of sediment were originally deposited
horizontally under the action of gravity.
PRINCIPLE OF CROSS CUTTING RELATIONSHIP- states that any rock of fault that cuts
across the other rock is younger than those it cuts across.
LAW OF UNCONFORMITIES- uniformities are the surfaces of erosion that separate younger
rocks from older ones, existing rock is lost and cannot be recovered.
GOODLUCK SA FINAL EXAM NYO!
AJA!!!
