Manual Temperature Mapping

Manual Temperature Mapping

This guide, and associated videos, will help you manually model the temperatures in the summer and
winter for Earth-like planets with an obliquity between 20° and 25° and a low eccentricity.

Video 1: Temperature 1: Continentality

Video 2: Temperature 2: Isotherms & Hot/Cold Spots
Video 3: TBC

You may see useful results when dealing with obliquities below 19° or above 26°, however the guide will
break down below 15° or above 35°. I would recommend that you visit Worldbuilding Pasta for the climate
explorations on obliquity and eccentricity when considering worlds with orbital characteristics substantially
different from Earth.

The first step of the guide is to establish continentality zones on the continents of the world. Continentality
(or Oceanality) measures the range in average monthly temperature between summer and winter. What
modelling continentality allows us to do is account for the larger variations of seasonal temperature on
large continents that we see on Earth.

Continentality is useful for worldbuilding temperature manually because it provides boundaries for the
highest and lowest temperature depending on the zone. While continentality indexes are derived from
observing monthly temperature variations over long periods of time (a climate normal averages
temperature and precipitation data over thirty years), we can utilise patterns we see from continentality
indexes to reverse-model temperature.

Due to the prograde motion of the Earth, there is a trend for Oceanic zones on the west coasts of
landmasses and Hypercontinental zones in the east. If you are designing a world with retrograde rotation,
then flip the guide horizontally: Oceanic zones on the east coast and Hypercontinental zones in the west.

After mapping continentality zones, you will mark off a series of Hot and Cold Spots for the winter and
summer of northern and southern hemispheres. These Hot and Cold Spots will help model variations in
temperature from aridity, ocean currents, polar circles, continentality and other climate phenomena.

Once the Hot and Cold Spots are completed, the temperature by latitude for the world can be calculated on
a spreadsheet. The temperatures will establish the base isotherms for the world, which will be drawn or
warped around the thermal equator for the summer of both the northern and southern hemisphere. Finally,
the temperature will be adjusted for the Hot and Cold spots and Elevation, then the temperature range
between the summer and winter can be checked against the continentality zone to adjust as necessary.

If you want a region to be a little cooler or warmer, then the summer and winter temperature maps
produced with this guide will provide a stable baseline to work from. Humans have observed a large degree
of climatic variation over time on Earth despite solar insolation, obliquity, eccentricity and other factors
remaining relatively stable. There have been localised, regional, or hemispheric climate anomalies as well
as large shifts in Earth’s systems that have drastically changed climatic conditions.

A note on terminology: this guide refers to “poleward” and “equatorward” to indicate directions relative to
the hemisphere of the feature. If a continent is in the southern hemisphere, poleward would be south and
equatorward would be north. The terms are not particularly common, but very useful within the context of
the guide.
 Manual Temperature Mapping
Continentality

Map 1: Rivas–Martínez, S., Rivas–Sáenz, S. & Penas, A. (2015) Computerized Bioclimatic Maps of the World: Continentality [Map]. Retrieved February
1, 2024 from https://web.archive.org/web/20211027000948/http://www.globalbioclimatics.org/cbm/static/geogr/World_Continentality_gb.png

Hyperoceanic

The Hyperoceanic zone has the least amount of variation due to receiving parallel rays from the sun for
most of the year; mark a Hyperoceanic zone on any land between 10º N and 10º S of the Equator. Warm
equatorial currents and enclosed seas in the tropics can extend the Hyperoceanic zone along coasts and
over islands and isthmus up to the tropics (23.5° N/S on Earth). The Hyperoceanic zone will usually extend
inland 100 km from the coast, but can extend up to 200 km inland.

The above applies to planets with obliquities (axial tilts) between 20 and 25º. Planets with a lower obliquity
will broaden the latitudes of the hyperoceanic zone. A planet with an obliquity of 0° would be entirely
hyperoceanic because each latitude receives a stable amount of solar insolation. Planets with a higher
obliquity will narrow the latitudes of the hyperoceanic zone as less of the tropics receive consistent solar
insolation. A planet with an obliquity of 45° would have no hyperoceanic zone.

Oceanic

Oceanic zones have mild variations between the average temperatures of the warmest and coldest
months; mark an Oceanic zone on any land between 10°N/S to the tropics.

Subcontinental

Subcontinental zones have moderate variations between the average temperatures of the warmest and
coldest months; mark a subcontinental zones on each of your continents (exclude islands) between the
tropics and 90º N/S, providing the continents in question have surface area of a least 4.5 million km²
between 35º N/S and 70º N/S.

The following factors will finesse this zone:

1. The Subcontinental should extend at least 2,000 km from east to west. If at any point your
subcontinental zone is less than 2,000 km, erase the zone in that region.
a. If a physical feature of the ocean or sea bends inward, like the Great Australian Bight into
southern Australia, then that may stop the creation of a subcontinental zone. Similarly, the
southward curve of the Ionian Basin of the Mediterranean Sea corresponds to the end of
North Africa’s subcontinental zone.
 b. If a continent is tall like South America, but not wide, then a subcontinental zone may not
Manual form.Temperature Mapping
2. Erase 300-400 km off this zone on western coast of your continents.
3. Erase 100-250 km off this zone on northern and southern coasts in the mid-latitudes, and on the
equatorward side of a continent that extends into the polar circle, not the poleward side. (Treat sea
ice as land here)
4. Large bodies of water, especially warm water, on more than one side of a landmass will push the
Subcontinental zone into the interior, where there is at least 2,000 km of land oriented north-south
that is not interrupted by ocean circulation or warm seas, e.g. the Subcontinental boundary in
Europe begins about 15° E near the Adriatic Sea and the subcontinental boundary in Anatolia is
3~4° east of the Aegean. Compare this with North America.
5. Shift the Subcontinental zone poleward for intervening bays, gulfs or seas that have warm,
tropical water to the south e.g. the Caribbean Sea shifts the North American continental zone north
and the Bay of Bengal shifts the Eurasian continental zone north.
6. If the poleward extent of the continent falls below 30° N/S at anypoint moving eastward, end the
subcontinental zone e.g. the North African continental zone rounds out when the North African
coast shifts south along the Ionian Sea.
7. Above 70° latitude, the Subcontinental zone can spread across larger islands of the continent.
The Subcontinental zone will end between 100 and 300 km from the east coast of a relatively warm
current.

Continental

Continental zones have extreme variations between the average temperatures of the warmest and coldest
months; mark Continental zones over your subcontinental zones between 40º N/S and 90º N/S, providing
the continents have a surface area of at least 10 million km² above 35º N/S.

Large lakes, inland seas, and other nearby bodies of water near the boundary of the Subcontinental and
Continental zones will shift the Continental zone, e.g. the Great Lakes interrupt the eastward spread of the
continental zone.

Erase 1,700 - 2000 km off the western side of the continental zone and extend the continental zone
towards the equator to 35° N/S if it stays at least 1,000 km from equatorward oceans and seas. If a
landmass widens towards the pole, then the distance between the western boundary of the Continental and
Subcontinental zones slowly closes. The distance between them is 650~700 km at 50° N/S. Above 70°
N/S, the minimum distance from the western boundary of the Subcontinental Zone is further reduced.

Hypercontinental

Hypercontinental zones have very extreme variations between the average temperatures of the warmest
and coldest months; mark hypercontinental zones over your continental zones between 50° N/S and
90°N/S

Erase 4,000km off the western side of the zone. This will likely erase most, if not all, of your
hypercontinental zones. As with the subcontinental and continental zones, lakes can disrupt or interrupt
Hypercontinental zones, e.g. in Map 1 Lake Baikal separates the two Hypercontinental zones of Eurasia.

In the east, hypercontinental zones will end between 80 and 200 km from the coast of shallow, cold seas,
or between 600 and 700 km near warm seas or deeper seas.

Final Touches

Everything that is not already marked Hyperoceanic, Subcontinental, Continental or Hypercontinental is in

the Oceanic zone.
Make sure there is a smooth gradient between zones going from Hyperoceanic → Oceanic →
Subcontinental → Continental → Hypercontinental. Eg. if a continental zone were to touch an oceanic zone,
place a subcontinental zone in between. Similarly, if a hypercontinental zone were to touch an oceanic
zone, place a Subcontinental and Continental zone between them.
 Manual
Assigning Temperature
Values Mapping
to Temperature Variations

Latitude

Continentality 0° – 19° 20° – 29° 30° – 39° 40° – 49° 50° – 59° 60° – 69° 70° – 90°

Hyperoceanic 0 – 6°C 3 – 9°C 6 – 9°C 6 – 12°C 6 – 12°C 6 – 12°C 6 – 12°C

Oceanic 3 – 12°C 6 – 15°C 9 – 21°C 9 –24°C 12 – 27°C 12 – 30°C 15 – 30°C

Subcontinental 12 – 15°C 15 – 21°C 21 – 27°C 24 – 33°C 27 – 36°C 30 – 42°C 33 – 42°C

Continental 15 – 18°C 21 – 27°C 27 – 36°C 33 – 42°C 36 – 48°C 39 – 51°C 42 – 54°C

Hypercontinental 18 – 21°C 27 – 35°C 35 – 42°C 42 – 51°C 48 – 57°C 51 – 63°C 54 – 66°C

Table 1: Difference in average monthly temperature between hottest and coldest months by latitude. [Temperature ranges are modified from the
Conrad Continentality Index.]

Hot and Cold Spots[1]

In this step, you’ll create two maps; one summer solstice map, one winter solstice map. In each
hemisphere, you’ll add Hot and Cold Spots which will be used in following steps to modify temperature.

Beginning with your summer solstice map, mark in the following Hot and Cold Spots. Unless otherwise
stated, it’s a good idea to colour code each of the following steps.

Arid Hot Spots

Mark in Arid Hot Spots on dry land between 20° and 33° latitude in the summer hemisphere only. A
landmass must have at least 200 km of dry land at the shortest distance between 20° and 33° latitude in
order to have an Arid Hot Spot. If a body of water (like a bay or sea) is surrounded by an Arid Hot Spot, then
the Arid Hot Spot will spread over the body of water.

Warm Current Hot Spots

Mark in Warm Current Hot Spots on land bordering warm currents (or warm water seas) in the mid
latitudes in both hemispheres. Extend this zone up to 700 km inland in the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steep mountains and/or high elevation will block the spread of this zone.

Cool Current Cold Spots

Mark in Cool Current Hot Spots on land bordering cold currents (or cold water seas) in the mid latitudes in
both hemispheres. Extend this zone up to 700 km inland in the direction of the prevailing winds. Steep
mountains and/or high elevation will block the spread of this zone.
 Manual Temperature
(Hyper)continental Mapping
Cold Spots

Mark in a Hypercontinental Cold Spot in the centre of all hypecontinental zones. In remain continental
zones without a hyper continental zone, mark in Continental Cold Spots in their centres as well.

Polar Water Cold Spots

Along non-tropical cold water currents, extend a Polar Water Cold Spot zone up to 1000 km from the shore
into the centre of your oceans.

Tropical Water Cold Spots

Along tropical cold water currents, extend a Tropical Water Cold Spot zone up to 1000 km from the shore
into the centre of your oceans.

Tropical Ocean Hot Spots

Begin marking in your Tropical Ocean Hotspots over your equatorial counter current 2000 km away from
the nearest Tropical Water Cold Spot. Continue westward until your hit a continent, then extend the zone
poleward along the coastline. In the summer hemisphere, the maximum extent of the Tropical Ocean Hot
Spot will be between 10° - 30° latitude. In the winter hemisphere, the maximum extend will be between 10°
and 20° latitude.

Tropical Sea Hot Spots

Using the same colour you used to mark in your Tropical Ocean Hot Spots, mark in Tropical Sea Hot Spots
near archipelagos and over enclosed (or nearly enclosed) bodies of water within the tropics. Extend
Tropical Sea Hot Spots inland up to 300 km to cover any islands, isthmuses, or peninsulas surrounded by
the Hot Spot.

Repeat all the above steps for your winter solstice map

Baseline Isotherms
In this step, you’ll create a temperature range for your planet based on its average temperature. After which,
you’ll plot isotherms (lines connecting points with the same average temperature) at ~6°C intervals for your
summer solstice and winter solstice maps.

Temperature Range

Begin by computing the average temperature of your planet. This can be done using the “PLANET” tab in
the WorldSmith.

The temperature at 40° latitude will be the average temperature of your planet. For every 1° of latitude
poleward, the temperature will decrease by 0.7°C, and for every 1° of latitude equatorward, the temperature
will increase by 0.5°C. Create a table of latitudes, and their associated temperatures, starting at your
tropics and going to be poles. Then starting at the tropic, mark off every ~6°C to get your isotherms. Make
a note of the relative latitudinal distance between each isotherm.

For Earth, the completed table would look like this.

Latitude Temp °C Notes

23.5 23.25 Isotherm 1
 (23.5° latitude away from thermal
equator (see next step))
Manual Temperature Mapping
24 23
25 22.5
26 22
27 21.5
28 21
29 20.5
30 20
31 19.5
32 19
33 18.5
34 18
35 17.5 Isotherm 2
(11.5° latitude away from previous
isotherm)
36 17
37 16.5
38 16
39 15.5
40 15 Avg. Temp of Earth
41 14.3
42 13.6
43 12.9
44 12.2
45 11.5 Isotherm 3
(10° latitude away from previous
isotherm)
46 10.8
47 10.1
48 9.4
49 8.7
50 8
51 7.3
52 6.6
53 5.9
54 5.2 Isotherm 4
(9° latitude away from previous
isotherm)
55 4.5
56 3.8
57 3.1
58 2.4
59 1.7
60 1
61 0.3
62 -0.4 Isotherm 5
(8° latitude away from previous
isotherm)
63 -1.1
64 -1.8
65 -2.5
66 -3.2
67 -3.9
68 -4.6
69 -5.3
70 -6
71 -6.7 Isotherm 6
 (9° latitude away from previous
isotherm)
Manual Temperature Mapping
72 -7.4
73 -8.1
74 -8.8
75 -9.5
76 -10.2
77 -10.9
78 -11.6
79 -12.3 Isotherm 7
(8° latitude away from previous
isotherm)
80 -13
81 -13.7
82 -14.4
83 -15.1
84 -15.8
85 -16.5
86 -17.2
87 -17.9
88 -18.6 Isotherm 8
(9° latitude away from previous
isotherm)
89 -19.3
90 -20

Thermal Equator

The shape of your baseline isotherms will be dictated by your planet’s thermal equator. Manually mapping
the thermal equator is tricky but here a few tips:

1. The thermal equator will roughly match the ITCZ

2. Over continents, the thermal equator can shift above the tropic up to a maximum of 30° N/S
when coinciding with an Arid Hot Spots.
3. Over open oceans, the thermal equator will ascend to the centre of Tropical Hot Spots at 10°
latitude, and then gradually rise towards the coasts of landmasses with Arid Hot Spots.
4. Avoid plotting the thermal equator over elevations greater than 4000 km outside of the tropics.

Following these guidelines, plot the thermal equator for your summer solstice and winter solstice maps.

Baseline Isotherms

Starting with the summer solstice map, make a copy of your thermal equator and shift the copy poleward
(in both hemispheres) by an amount equivalent to the axial tilt of your planet. This will be your first
isotherm, per the chart you made in the previous steps. Note the temperature of the isotherm on your map.

Then make a copy of this isotherm and shift it poleward. Ensure the distance between your first isotherm
and second isotherm agrees with the chart from the previous step. Again, note the temperature.

Repeat this process until you reach the poles.

Then repeat this process for your winter solstice map.

Next, you’ll need to finesse these isotherms a bit. Your first isotherm will match the shape of the thermal
equator. Each successive poleward isotherm should be a little smoother and a little less irregular, such that
your final isotherm at the poles will be more or less circular. With this in mind, modify both solstice maps
accordingly.
[1] ‘Hot Spot’ and ‘Cold Spot’ are not formal terms. They are useful in the context of this guide
Manual Temperature Mapping