Lecture 2: The Relational Model
EEE 207 Database Management Systems
30 Jan 2013
Peter Kimemiah
Based on DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS S I XTH E D I T I ON by Abraham Silberschatz
Example of a Relation
attributes
(or columns)
tuples
(or rows)
Attribute Types
The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
of the attribute (could be number, string, binary e.t.c)
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is,
indivisible
The special value null is a member of every domain. (null is not
zero or blank, it is nothing)
The null value causes complications in the definition of many
operations
Relation Schema and Instance
A1, A2, …, An are attributes
R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema
Example:
instructor = (ID, name, dept_name, salary)
Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset of
D1 x D2 x … x Dn
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an) where each ai Di
The current values (relation instance) of a relation are specified by
a table
An element t of r is a tuple (row), represented by a row in a table
Relations are Unordered
Order of tuples is irrelevant (tuples may be stored in an arbitrary order)
Example: instructor relation with unordered tuples
Database
A database consists of multiple relations
Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts
instructor
student
advisor
Bad design:
univ (instructor -ID, name, dept_name, salary, student_Id, ..)
results in
repetition of information (e.g., two students have the same instructor)
the need for null values (e.g., represent an student with no advisor)
Normalization theory (Chapter 7) deals with how to design “good”
relational schemas
Keys
Let K R
K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique
tuple of each possible relation r(R)
Example: {ID} and {ID,name} are both superkeys of instructor.
Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {ID} is a candidate key for Instructor
One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary key.
which one?
Foreign key constraint: Value in one relation must appear in another
Referencing relation
Referenced relation
Schema Diagram for University Database
Relational Query Languages
Procedural vs.non-procedural, or declarative
“Pure” languages:
Relational algebra
Tuple relational calculus
Domain relational calculus
Relational operators
Selection of tuples
Relation r
Select tuples with A=B
and D > 5
σ A=B and D > 5 (r)
Selection of Columns (Attributes)
Relation r:
Select A and C
Projection
Π A, C (r)
Joining two relations – Cartesian Product
Relations r, s:
r x s:
Union of two relations
Relations r, s:
r s:
Set difference of two relations
Relations r, s:
r – s:
Set Intersection of two relations
Relation r, s:
r s
Joining two relations – Natural Join
Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, the “natural join” of relations R and S is a relation on
schema R S obtained as follows:
Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes
in R S, add a tuple t to the result, where
t has the same value as tr on r
t has the same value as ts on s
Natural Join Example
Relations r, s:
Natural Join
r s
Figure in-
in-2.1
Example Queries
Find all loans of over $1200
amount > 1200 (loan)
Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than
$1200
loan_number ( amount > 1200 (loan))
Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an account, or both,
from the bank
customer_name (borrower) customer_name (depositor)
Example Queries
Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the Perryridge branch.
customer_name ( branch_name = “Perryridge” (
borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number (borrower x loan)))
customer_name( loan.loan_number =
borrower.loan_number (
( branch_name = “Perryridge” (loan)) x borrower))
Reference of Set Symbols
Sign Example Meaning and verbal equivalent Remarks
⊆ B⊆A B is included in A; B is a subset Every element of B belongs to A. ⊂ is also used.
of A
⊂ B⊂A B is properly included in A; B is a Every element of B belongs to A, but B is not equal
proper subset of A to A. If ⊂ is used for "included", then ⊊ should be
used for "properly included".
⊈ C⊈A C is not included in A; C is not a ⊄ is also used.
subset of A
⊇ A⊇ B A includes B (as subset) A contains every element of B. ⊃ is also
used. B ⊆ A means the same as A ⊇ B.
⊃ A ⊃ B. A includes B properly. A contains every element of B, but A is not equal
to B. If ⊃ is used for "includes", then ⊋ should be
used for "includes properly".
⊉ A⊉ C A does not include C (as subset) ⊅ is also used. A ⊉ C means the same as C ⊈ A.
∪ A∪ B union of A and B The set of elements which belong to A or to B or to
both A and B.
A∪ B = {x ∣x∈A∨x ∈B }
∩ A∩ B intersection of A and B The set of elements which belong to both A and B.
A∩ B = {x∣ x∈A∧ x∈ B }
Exercises
below.
employee (person name, street, city)
works (person name, company name, salary)
company (company name, city)
References
Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan, Database System Concepts, 6th
Ed, Chapter 1.
Eric J. Naiburg, Entity Relationship Modeling with UML,
Information Management. Retrieved from http://www.information-
management.com/infodirect/20030123/6268-1.html
