1 Heat and Gases
1.1 Definitions
1. Internal energy is total energy stored in a body (KE + PE)
2. Temperature: the average kinetic energy due to the motion of the molecules of the body
3. Heat is the energy transfer from one body to another as a result of temperature difference
4. Heat capacity is the energy transferred by heating needed to raise that temperature of
the body by 1◦ C
5. Specific heat capacity is the energy transferred by heating needed to raise that temper-
ature of 1 kg of the substance by 1◦ C
fusion vaporization (boiling / evaporation)
6. Solid ←−−−
−−→ Liquid −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Gas
−−−−− ←condensation
−−−−−−−
solidification
7. Latent heat is absorbed or released by a substance when its state changes
8. The specific latent heat of a substance is the energy transferred by heating to change the
state of 1 kg of the substance without a change in temperature
1.2 The law of conservation of energy
The total amount of energy in a closed system is conserved
energy cannot be created nor destroyed
they can only be converted from one form to another
1.3 Experiment: measuring specific heat capacity of a liquid
Immerse the heating part of the heater totally in the liquid before turning it on
→
− prevent damages by overheating
Immerse the heating part of the heater totally in the liquid
→
− maximize the energy transfer to the liquid
× record the temperature immediately after the heater has been switched off ✓ record the
highest temperature reached
Use a polystyrene cup
→
− minimize the cup’s energy gain from the liquid
→
− minimize the energy loss to the surroundings
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Keep stirring the liquid after heating
→
− ensure a uniform temperature throughout the liquid
1.4 Experiment: measuring specific heat capacity of a metal block
Insert the heating part of the heater totally into the solid before turning it on
→
− prevent damages by overheating
Insert the heating part of the heater totally into the solid
→
− maximize the energy transfer to the liquid
× record the temperature immediately after the heater has been switched off
✓ record the highest temperature reached
Add a few drops of oil to the holes in the substance
→
− ensure a good thermal contact between the heater, thermometer and the block
Place the substance on a polystyrene tile and wrap it with cotton wool
→
− minimize the energy loss to the bench (for solids)
1.5 Experiment: measuring specific latent heat of vaporization
1.6 Experiment: measuring specific latent heat of fusion
Ice should be crushed
→ increase the contact area with the heater
Use melting ice
→ ensure that it is at 0◦ C and no energy is used to raise its temperature before melting
Place a small piece of wire gauze in the neck of the funnels
→ prevent crushed ice from dropping into the beaker directly
Do not remove the beakers until the drip rates are steady and about the same
Set up a control apparatus because some ice also absorbs energy from the surroundings and
melts
1.7 Rate of heat transfer
Conduction
Vacuum does not have air → no conduction
Pockets of air in polystyrene/foam/cotton → heat is transferred slowly by conduction
2
Convection
Pockets of air in polystyrene/foam/cotton → reduce cooling by air convection
Vacuum does not have air → no heat loss by convection
A sheet of glass cover → reduce cooling by air convection / trap heat by greenhouse effect
Radiation
Silvery surfaces are bad absorber/emitter of radiation → reduce net gain/loss of energy
Dull surfaces are good absorber/emitter of radiation → increase net gain/loss of energy
1.8 Experiment: p-V relationship under constant T (Boyle’s Law)
Use a shorter rubber tubing / a larger syringe
→ volume of air in rubber tubing become negligible (insignificant)
Move the piston slowly → prevent the gas inside from heating up
Do not take reading immediately after the piston is removed → wait until the temperature
become steady
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1.9 Experiment: p-T relationship with constant V
Use a shorter rubber tubing / a larger flask
→ volume of air in rubber tubing become negligible
The flask should be fully immersed in water
Sufficient time must be allowed
→ ensure that the air in the flask reaches the temperature of the water
Water must be well-stirred before taking the reading of temperature
→ ensure uniform temperature
The thermometer and the flask should not touch the bottom of the beaker
∵ bottom of the beaker is hotter than the water
1.10 Experiment: V-T relationship under constant p
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The air column should be fully immersed in water
Sufficient time must be allowed
→ ensure that the air in the air column reaches the temperature of the water
Water must be well-stirred before taking the reading of temperature
→ ensure uniform temperature
The thermometer and the capillary tube should not touch the bottom of the beaker
∵ bottom of the beaker is hotter than the water
1.11 Experiment: mechanical model of a gas
Corresponding properties of gas
pressure p → weight of the disc
volume V → volume occupied by the ball bearings (height of the disc)
number of moles of gas n → number of ball bearings
temperature T → power/voltage of the motor
molar mass NA m / molecular mass m → mass of a ball bearing
p
root-mean-square speed c2 → speed of the ball
1.12 Kinetic Theory
1.12.1 Assumptions of the kinetic model of an ideal gas
large number of identical molecules
point gas molecules with no volume
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moves in random (a range of) velocities and direction
performs elastic collision (when colliding with other molecules / the container)
has no intermolecular attractions (besides elastic collision)
1.12.2 Explaining p-V and p-T relation with kinetic theory
temperature increases → K.E. of molecules increases → average/r.m.s. speed increase
∴ more violent bombardment and more frequent collision
volume decreases → distance between two walls travelled by gas molecules decreases
∴ more frequent collision
1.12.3 Brownian motion
smoke particles moves in a zig-zag path (or Brownian motion)
since the smoke particles are bombarded by a large number of air molecules from all direction
with a random resultant force
1.12.4 Gas pressure resulted from molecular bombardment
gas molecules collides with the inner surface of the container
the rebound results in momentum change
exerting pressure onto the surface of the container
