Sri Chaitanya IIT Academy.
, India Mathematics Concepts and Formulae
Sri Chaitanya IIT Academy., India
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Read, Revise & Retain (R R R – Concept)
Mathematics Concepts and Formulae
Application of Derivatives
Derivatives as the Rate of Change
If a variable quantity y is some function of time t i.e. y f t , then small change in time
t have a corresponding change y in y
y
Thus, the average rate of change
t
When limit t 0 is applied, the rate of change becomes instantaneous and we get the
y dy
rate of change with respect to t at any instant y , i.e. lim .
t 0 t dt
dy
Similarly, the differential coefficient of y with respect to x i.e. is nothing but the rate
dx
of change of y relative to x .
Derivative as the Rate of Change of Two Variables
Let two variables are varying with respect to another variable t , i.e. y f t and x g t .
dy dy / dt dy dy dt
Then, rate of change of y with respect to x is given by or
dx dx / dt dx dt dx
dy
Note is positive, if y increases as x increases and is negative, if y decreases as x
dx
increases.
Marginal Cost
Marginal cost represents the instantaneous rate of change of the totalcost with respect to
the number of items produced at an instant. If C x represents the cost function for x units
d
produced, then marginal cost,denoted by MC , is given by MC
dx
C x
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Marginal Revenue
Marginal revenue represents the rate of change of total revenue with respect to the number
of items sold at an instant. If R x represents the revenue function for x units sold, then
marginal revenue, denoted by MR , is given by
d
MR
dx
R x
Note Total cost = Fixed cost + Variable cost i.e. C X f c v X .
Tangents and Normals
A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve y f x at a point. A normal is a
straight line perpendicular to a tangent to the curve y f x intersecting at the point of
contact.
Slope of Tangent and Normal
(i) If the tangent at P is perpendicular to X axis or parallel to Y axis , then
dy
tan ,
2 dx P
(ii) If the tangent at P is perpendicular to Y axis or parallel to X axis , then
dy
0 0 0
dx P
1 1 dx
(iii)Slope of the normal at P
Slope of the tangent at P dy dy P
dx P
dy
(iv) If 0 , then tangent is parallel to the X axis
dx P
dy
(v) If , then tangent is perpendicular to X axis
dx P
(vi) Equation of Tangents and Normals
The derivative of the curve y f x is f ' x which represents the slope of tangent and
dy
equation of the tangent to the curve at P is Y y X x , where x, y is an arbitrary
dx
point on the tangent.
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dx
The equation of normal at x, y to the curve is Y y X x
dy
dy
(i) If 0 , then the equations of the tangent and normal at x, y are Y y 0 and
dx x, y
X x 0 , respectively.
dy
(ii) If , then the equation of the tangent and normal at x, y are X x 0
dx x, y
and Y y 0 , respectively.
Length of Tangent and Normal
2
dy
y 1
dx
(i) Length of tangent, PA y cos ec
dy
dx
2
dy
(ii) Length of normal, PB y sec y 1
dx
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y
(iii)Length of sub tangent, AS y cot
dy / dx
dy
(iv) Length of subnormal, BS y tan y
dx
Angle of Intersection of Two Curves
Let y f1 x and y f 2 x be the two curves, meeting at some point P x1, y1 , then the
angle between the two curves at P x1, y1 = the angle between the tangents to the curves at
P x1 , y1
The other angle between the tangents is 180 . Generally, the smaller of these two
angles is taken to be the angle of intersection.
m1 m2
The angle of intersection of two curves is given by tan
1 m1m2
df df
Where, m1 1 and m2 2
dx x1 , y1 dx x1 , y1
df df 2
(i) If , m1m2 1 1 1
2 dx x1 , y1 dx x1 , y1
such curves are called orthogonal curves.
df df
(ii) If 0, m1 m2 1 x1 , y1 2 x1, y1 such curves are tangential at x1 , y1
dx dx
Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be a real function defined in the closed interval a, b , such that
(i) f is continuous in the closed interval a, b .
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(ii) f x is differentiable in the open interval a, b .
(iii) f a f b
Then, there is some point c in the open interval a, b , such that f ' c 0 .
Geometrically
Under the assumptions of Rolle’s theorem, the graph of f x starts at point a, f a and
ends at point b, f b . as shown in figures.
The conclusion is that there is atleast one point c between a and b such that the tangent to
the graph at c, f x is parallel to the X axis
Algebraic Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem
Between any two roots of a polynomial f x , there is always a root of its derivative
f ' x
Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem
Let f be a real function, continuous on the closed interval a, b and differentiable in the
open interval a, b . Then, there is at least one point c in the open interval a, b , such that
f b f a
f ' c
ba
Geometrically For any chord of the curve y f x , There is a point on the graph, where the
tangent is parallel to this chord.
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f b f a
Remarks In the particular case, when f a f b the expression becomes zero,
ba
i.e. when f a f b , f ' c 0 for some c in a, b , Thus, the Rolle’s theorem becomes a
particular case of the Lagrange’s mean value theorem.
Approximations and Errors
1. Let y f x be a given function and x denotes a small increment in x , corresponding
which y increases by y . Then, for small increments, we assume that
y dy
[symbol stands for ‘‘approximately equal to’’]
x dx
dy
y x
dx
For approximations of y , y dy
dy
Then, dy x
dx
dy
Thus, y y f x x f x x
dx
2. Let x be the error in the measurement of independent variable x and y corresponding
error in the measurement of dependent variable y
dy
Then y x y Absolute error in measurement of y
dx
y y
Relative error in measurement of y 100 Percentage error in measurement of y
y y
Increasing Function
(Non-decreasing Function)
A function f is called an increasing function in domain D , if
x1 x2 f x1 f x2 x1, x2 D
Strictly Increasing Function
f x is said to be strictly increasing in D , if for every x1, x2 D; x1 x2 f x1 f x2
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Decreasing Function (Non-increasing Function)
A function f is called a decreasing function in domain D , If
x1 x2 f x1 f x2 , x1, x2 D
Strictly Decreasing Function
f x is said to be strictly decreasing in D ,if for every x1, x2 D, x1 x2 f x1 f x2
Important Points to be Remembered
(i) A function f x is said to be increasing (decreasing) at point X 0 , if there is an interval
X 0 h, X 0 h , containing X 0 , such that f x is increasing (decreasing) on
X 0 h, X 0 h .
(ii) A function f x is said to be increasing on a, b , if it is increasing on a, b and it is also
increasing at x a and x b .
(iii)Let f be a differentiable real function defined on an open interval a, b .
(a) If f ' X 0 for all X a, b , then f x is strictly increasing on a, b .
(b) If f ' x 0 for all X a, b , then f x is strictly decreasing on a, b .
(iv) Let f be a function defined on a, b
(a) If f ' X 0 for all x a, b except for a finite number of points, where f ' X 0 ,
then f x is increasing on a, b .
(b) If f ' x 0 for all x a, b except for a finite number of points, where f ' X 0 ,
then f x is decreasing on a, b .
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Monotonic Function
If a function is either increasing or decreasing on an interval a, b then it is said to be a
monotonic function.
Note If a function is increasing in some interval l1 and decreasing in some
interval l2 , then that function is not monotonic function.
Properties of Monotonic Functions
(i) If f x is strictly increasing (decreasing) function on an interval a, b , then f 1 exist and
also a strictly increasing (decreasing) function.
(ii) If f x and g x are strictly increasing (or decreasing) function on a, b , then
gof x and fog x (provided they exists) is strictly increasing function on a, b .
(iii) If one of the two functions f x and g x is strictly increasing and other a strictly
decreasing, then gof x and fog x (provided they exists) is strictly decreasing on
a, b .
(iv) If f x is continuous on a, b , and differentiable on a, b such that f ' c 0 for
each c a, b is strictly increasing function on a, b .
(v) If f x is continuous on a, b such that f ' c 0 for each c a, b , then f x is
strictly decreasing function on a, b .
Maxima and Minima of Functions
Local Maximum (Maxima) A function y f x is said to have a local maximum at a
point x a . If f x f a for all x a h, a h where h is very small positive quantity.
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The point x a is called a point of local maximum of the function f x and f a is
known as the local maximum value of f x at x a
Local Minimum (Minima) A function y f x
is said to have a local minimum at a point x a
if f x f a for all x a h, a h ,
where h is very small positive quantity.
The point x a is called a point of
local minimum of the function f x and
f a is known as the local minimum value of f x at x a .
Note Extreme value A function f x is said to have an extreme value in domain, if there
exists a point c in interval such that f C is either a local maximum value or local
minimum value in the interval.
Properties of Maxima and Minima
(i) If f x is continuous function in its domain, then atleast one maxima and one minima must
lie between two different values of x on which functional values are equal.
(ii) Maxima and minima occur alternately, i.e., between two maxima there is one minima and
vice-versa.
(iii) If f x as x a or b and f ' x 0 only for one value of x (sayc) between
a and b , then f c is necessarily the minimum and the least value.
(iv) If f x as x a or b and f ' c 0 only for one value of x (say c) between
a and b , then f c is necessarily the maximum and the greatest value.
Critical Points of a Function
Points where a function f x is not differentiable and points where its derivative
(differentiable coefficient) is zero are called the critical points of the function f x .
Maximum and minimum values of a function f x can occur only at critical points.
However, this does not mean that the function will have maximum or minimum values at
all critical points. Thus, the points where maximum or minimum value occurs are
necessarily critical points but a function may or may not have maximum or minimum
value at a critical point.
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Important Points to be Remembered
(i) If f x be a differentiable functions, then f ' x vanishes at every local maximum and
at every local minimum.
(ii) The converse of above is not true, i.e. every point at which f ' x vanishes need not be
a local maximum or minimum. e.g. if f x x3 , then f ' 0 0 , but at x 0 the
function has neither maxima nor minima. In general these points are point of inflection.
(iii) A function may attain an extreme value at a point without being derivable at that point.
e.g. f x x has a minima at x 0 but f ' 0 does not exist.
(iv) A function f x can has several local maximum and local minimum values in an
interval. Thus, the maximum and minimum values of f x defined above are not
necessarily the greatest and the least values of f x in a given interval.
(v) A local value at some point may even be greater than a local values at some other point.
Methods to Find a Local Maximum and Local Minimum
1. First Derivative Test
Let f x be a differentiable function on an interval I and a I then
(i) Point a is a local maximum of f x , if
(a) f ' a 0
(b) f ' x 0 , if x a h, a and f ' x 0 . If x a, a h , where h is a small positive
quantity.
(ii) Point a is a local minimum of f x , if
(a) f ' a 0
(b) f ' x 0 , if x x h, a and f ' x 0 . If x a, a h , where h is a small positive
quantity.
(iii)If f ' a 0 but f ' x does not changes sign in a h, a h , for any positive quantity h ,
then x a is neither a point of local minimum nor a point of local maximum.
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2. Second Derivative Test
Let f x be a differentiable function on an interval I . Let a I is such that f '' x is
continuous at x a . Then.
(i) x a is a point of local maximum, if f ' a 0 and f '' a 0 .
(ii) x a is a point of local minimum, if f ' a 0 and f '' a 0 .
(iii) If f ' a f '' a 0 , but f "' a 0 , if exists, then x a is neither a point of local
maximum nor a point of local minimum and is called point of inflection.
(iv) If f ' a f '' a f ''' a 0 and f iv a 0 then it is a local maximum. And if
f iv a 0 , then it is a local minimum.
3. n th Derivative Test
Let f be a differentiable function on an interval I and let a be an interior point of I such
that f ' a f '' a f ''' a ... f n 1 a 0 and f n a exists and is non-zero.
(i) If n is even and f n a 0 x a is a point of local maximum.
(ii) If n is even and f n a 0 x a is a point of local minimum
(iii) If n is odd, then x a is neither a point of local maximum nor a point of local minimum.
Concept of Global Maximum/Minimum
Let y f x be a given function with domain D .
Let a, b D then global maximum/minimum of f x in a.b is basically the
greatest/least value of f x in a, b
Global maxima/minima in a, b would always occur at critical points of f x with in [a,
b] or at end points of the interval
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Global Maximum/Minimum in a, b
In order to find the global maximum and minimum of f x in a, b find out all critical points
c1.c2 ,..., cn of f x in a, b (i.e., all points at which f ' x 0) or f ' x not exists and let
f c1 , f c2 ,..., f cn be the values of the function at these points.
Then, M1 Global maxima or greatest value.
And M 2 Global minima or least value.
Where M1 max f a , f c1 , f c2 ,...., f cn , f b
And M 2 min f a , f c1 , f c2 ,...., f cn f b
Then, M1 is the greatest value or global maxima in a, b and M 2 is the least value or
global minima in a, b .
(i) To Find Range of a Continuous Function Let f x be a continuous function on
a, b , such that its least value in a, b is m and the greatest value in a, b is M .
Then, range of value of f x for x a, b is m, M .
(ii) To check for the Injectivity of a Function a strictly monotonic function is always
one-one (injective). Hence, a function f x is one-one in the interval a, b , if
f ' x 0 x a, b or f ' x 0, x a, b .
(iii) The points at which a function attains either the local maximum value or local
minimum value are known as the extreme points or turning points and both local
maximum and local minimum values are called the extreme values of f x .
Thus, a function attains an extreme value at x a , if f a is either a local maximum value
or a local minimum value. Consequently at an extreme point ' a ', f x f a
keeps the same sign for all values of x in a deleted nbd of a .
(iv) A necessary condition for f a to be an extreme value of a function f x is that
f ' a 0 in case it exists. It is not sufficient. i.e. f ' a 0 does not necessarily
imply that x a is an extreme point. There are functions for which the derivatives
vanish at a point but do not have an extreme value. e.g. the function
f x x3 , f ' 0 0 but at x 0 the function does not attain an extreme value.
(v) Geometrically the above condition means that the tangent to the curve y f x at a
point where the ordinate is maximum or minimum is parallel to the X axis
(vi) All x , for which f ' x 0 , do not give us the extreme values. The values of x for
which f ' x 0 are called stationary values or critical values of x and the
corresponding values of f x are called stationary or turning values of f x .
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