Chapter 7:

Dislocations & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are dislocations observed primarily in metals
and alloys?
• Does the crystal structure of a metal affect its mechanical
characteristics? If so, how and why?
• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• How do we increase strength?

• How can heating change strength and other properties?

Chapter 6 - 1
 Theoretical vs. Measured Strengths
• Theoretical Strengths >> measured strengths
– 1930s: dislocations theorized to exist
– 1950s: first direct observation of dislocations

Atoms in
compression

Atoms in
Transmission electron microscope image of
tension
Fig. 4.4, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Ti alloy. Fig. 4.7, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Chapter 6 -
2
 Where do Dislocations Come From ?
The number of dislocations in a material: dislocation density –
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
Dislocation densities can vary
•from 105 cm-2 solidified metal crystals (undeformed)
•to 1012 cm-2 in heavily deformed metals.

• Most crystalline metals have dislocation

in as-formed state from stresses
(mechanical, thermal, etc) associated
with forming process
• number of dislocations increases
dramatically during plastic deformation
• Dislocations spawn from existing
dislocations, grain boundaries and
surfaces. Chapter 6 - 3
 Dislocations Move Like Caterpillars
• Caterpillar locomotion – hump formed and propelled by
lifting and shifting leg pairs

• Dislocation motion –extra ½-plane of atoms moves by

breaking and reforming interatomic bonds

Fig. 7.3, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 6 - 4
 Plastic Deformation by Dislocation Motion
• Plastic deformation occurs by dislocation motion = slip
• (edge, screw, mixed)
• Applied τ  extra ½-plane of atoms & dislocation line ( )move

Applied shear stress

Slip
plane

• Atomic bonds broken and reformed along slip plane as

the dislocation moves.
• Requires less energy than breaking all bonds at once
Chapter 6 -
Fig. 7.1, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. 5
 Motion of Edge and Screw Dislocations
• Dislocation moves along slip plane in slip direction
perpendicular to dislocation line in response to stress
• Slip direction same direction as Burgers vector

Edge dislocation:
disl. line ( )
moves in direction
of τ.

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Screw dislocation:
disl. line ( ) moves
perpendicular to τ

Chapter 6 -
Fig. 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. 6
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• Metals: Disl. motion easier.
+ + + + + + + +
-non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
-close-packed directions + + + + + + + +
for slip. electron cloud ion cores

• Covalent Ceramics
(Si, diamond): Motion hard.
-directional (angular) bonding

• Ionic Ceramics (NaCl):

+ - + - + - +
Motion hard.
- + - + - + -
-need to avoid ++ and - -
neighbors. + - + - + - +

Chapter 6 - 7
 Factors Determining Dislocation Motion:
What determines ease of dislocation motion?

Atomic Packing: higher density  dislocation mobility

Chapter 6 -
8
 Slip Systems

• Slip Plane
– Crystallographic plane on which slip occurs most
easily
– Plane with high planar density

• Slip Direction
– Crystallographic direction along which slip occurs
most easily
– Direction with high linear density

• Slip System:
– A slip direction in a slip plane
– Closest-packed direction in closest-packed plane
– Minimize atomic distortion during dislocation motion
Chapter 6 -
9
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– Slip plane – highest planar density
• Wide interplanar spacings - highest planar densities
– Slip direction - highest linear densities
– Slip System: slip plane+slip direction
Adapted from Fig.
7.6, Callister 7e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} planes (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– in BCC & HCP other slip systems occur
Chapter
106 -
 Slip Planes
• Dislocations can move more easily in some
crystallographic directions and planes than others.
• Dislocations will move along the closest packed
directions – slip planes and slip direction = slip
system.
• The different packing arrangements of various crystal
structures mean they have different numbers of easy
slip systems.
• Some crystal structures have thermally activated slip
systems, which means that they only operate at
higher temperatures.

Chapter
116 -
 Slip Systems (cont.)
• For FCC crystal structure – slip system is {111} 110
– Dislocation motion on {111} planes
– Dislocation motion in 110 directions
– A total of 12 independent slip systems for FCC

• More active slip systems  more ductile material

• BCC and HCP— some systems only active at high

temperatures Chapter 6 -
12
 Dislocations & Crystal Structures
• Comparison among crystal structures:
FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;
HCP: only one plane, 3 directions;
BCC: none

• HCP materials have fewer slip planes => more brittle.

• BCC - no close-packed planes, but close-packed directions
(slip is thermally activated).

• Specimens that Mg (HCP)

were tensile
tested. tensile direction
Al (FCC)
Chapter
136 -
What do we need to move dislocations?
 Dislocations move via applied shear stress
 When material loaded in tension, shear stress (τR)
arises from the internal stress state (noted in Ch 6)
 slip occurs when the shear stress acting in the slip
direction on the slip plane reaches some critical
value

ϕ
t R
=
F¢
A¢
λ
• τR depends on orientation of normal
to slip plane and slip direction with
direction of tensile force F:

F ¢ = F cos l
A
A¢ =
Adapted from Fig.
cos f
7.9, Callister 7e. Chapter 6 -
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, tR.
• Applied tension can produce such a stress.
Applied tensile Resolved shear Relation between
stress: s = F/A stress: tR =Fs /A s s and tR

F slip plane
tR tR = FS /AS
A normal, ns
AS Fcos l A/cos f
nS f
FS
F
l A
tR FS AS
F

tR = s cos l cos f Chapter

156 -
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for dislocation motion: tR  tCRSS
• Crystal orientation can make it easy or typically
or hard to move dislocation 10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa

s s tR = s cos l cos f s

t max at
tR = 0 tR = 0 tR = s/2
l = f = 45º
l =90° f =90° l =45°
f =45°

• Shear stress component only occurs when the slip plane is oriented
neither perpendicular nor parallel to stress direction Chapter 6 - 16
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Slip-system specific: dislocation motion (slip) occurs
• when τR = “Critical resolved shear stress”, τCRSS
• τR(max) > σ (cosλ cosϕ )max
• Typically 0.1 MPa < τCRSS < 10 Mpa

σ (stress) • first on the slip system with highest τR

• Most favorably oriented slip system
σy
• Yield strength of single crystal, σy, when

t CRSS
sy =
(cos l cos f ) max

• Minimum σy when λ = ϕ = 45  σy = 2τCRSS

ε (strain)
ε p = 0.002 Chapter 6 - 17
 Plot of the resolved shear stress τR acting on one slip
system against the shear strain γ during deformation

Initial Elastic Strain-results from bond stretching (obeys Hooke’s Law)

• Stage I (easy glide)- results from slip on one slip system
• Stage II - Multiple slip systems are active. A second or third slip system
becomes active and dislocations pile up.
• Stage III – dislocations cutting through one another
• In some extreme orientations of HCP crystals, the material fractures rather
than deforms plastically
.
Chapter 6 - 18
Courtesy of DoITPoMS, University of Cambridge
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
f=60°
tcrss = 3000 psi
l=35°
t = s cos l cos f
s = 6500 psi

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
t = (6500 psi) (cos 35 )(cos 60 )
= (6500 psi) (0.41)
Callister 7e.

t = 2662 psi  tcrss = 3000 psi

s = 6500 psi

So the applied stress of 6500 psi will

not cause the crystal to yield. Chapter
196 -
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
yield stress, sy)?

tcrss = 3000 psi = s y cos l cos f = s y (0.41)

tcrss 3000 psi

 sy = = = 7325 psi
cos l cos f 0.41

So for deformation to occur the applied stress must

be greater than or equal to the yield stress

s  s y = 7325 psi
Chapter
206 -
 Plastic deformation
• Real materials contain large number of dislocations
• The movement of these dislocations through the
material under applied stress is called slip and causes
plastic deformation.
• The ease with which dislocations can move depends
on:
– the crystal structure of the material
– the temperature of the material
– the presence of any barriers to slip (grain boundaries, point
defects, impurities
• To strengthening materials - introduce slip barriers.

Chapter
216 -
 Strengthening Mechanisms
The Million Dollar Question:
• Knowing how structures affect mechanical properties how
can we use this knowledge to “tailor” the structure to
achieve desired properties?

To strengthen metals: restrict the dislocation movement

Imagine yourself walking across the classroom as a

dislocation traveling through a crystal. What types of
obstacles might you encounter that would slow you down?

Chapter
226 -
 Strengthening Mechanisms
o The ability of a metal to deform depends on the ability of dislocations to move
o Restricting dislocation motion makes the material stronger (but less ductile)

o Mechanisms of strengthening in single-phase metals:

• grain boundaries - grain refining
smaller grains -> greater total grain boundary area (processing)
ex: nanocrystalline materials, rapid solidification (i.e. walls)

• point defects - solid solution strengthening, alloying

lattice strains of impurities interact with dislocation movement
ex: Sterling Silver, C in Fe Steel (i.e. desks in room)

• other dislocations - strain hardening, cold working

material becomes harder and stronger with plastic deformation due to
accumulation of dislocations
ex: Blacksmithing, rolling (i.e. other people in the room)

• volume obstacles - precipitation hardening, multiphase alloys

dislocations cut through or go around large obstacles
Chapter
236 -
 Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size
• Grain boundaries are barriers
to slip.
• Barrier "strength“ increases
with increasing angle of
misorientation.
• Smaller grain size: more
barriers to slip. Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson Education,
Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)

• Hall-Petch Equation:
Dependence of σy on average
grain diameter, d
s yield = so  k y d 1 / 2 σ0, ky = material constants
Only valid for moderate grain sizes
Chapter
246 -
Ex: Grain Size Strengthening

Chapter
256 -
 Single Crystal
• Single crystal deformed under tension:
– Plastic deformation occurs by slip on well-
defined, parallel crystal slip planes and
directions
– May have many available slip systems
• Slip occurs most readily on plane of greatest atomic
density
– Stress at which material starts to slip is yield
strength of material
– As load increases, resolved shear stress on
each system increases until τCRSS is reached
for one system
– Material plastically deforms by slip on this
system (primary slip system)

Chapter 6 -
 Dislocation Motion in Polycrystals
• Deformation and slip is more s
complicated
Two active
• Slip directions vary grain to
slip systems
grain (randomly oriented
equiaxed grains)
• Slip planes & directions (l, f)
change from one crystal to
another.
Adapted from Fig.
 tR will vary from one crystal 7.10, Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.10 is
to another. courtesy of C.
Brady, National
Bureau of
• Crystal with the largest tR Standards [now the
National Institute of
yields first. Standards and
Technology,
• Grain boundaries pin 300 mm Gaithersburg, MD].)

deformations (pile-up)
Chapter 6 - 27
 Slip: Polycrystalline vs Crystalline
• Polycrystalline:
– Prior to deformation, grains are equiaxed
– After deformation grains become elongated in direction that
tensile load is applied
– Grain boundaries maintain mechanical integrity and
coherency (grains do not come apart)
– Since grain boundaries prevent dislocation mobility,
polycrystalline materials require higher tensile load to deform
than single crystal materials

• As a result,
polycrystalline metals
are stronger than single
crystals

Chapter 6 - 28
 Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Solid Solutions
• Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
• Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Higher shear stress required to cause slip

• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional

impurity -> tensile strains impurity -> compressive strains

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right. Chapter 6 - 29
Stress Concentration at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig. 7.4,

Callister 7e.

Chapter
306 -
 Solid Solution Strengthening
• Impurity atoms introduce lattice strain
• Small substitutional impurities  tensile strains
– Above the slip line for edge dislocations:
• impurity (tensile) and disl. (compressive) strains partially cancel
• higher shear stress required to cause slip

Fig. 7.17, Callister &

Rethwisch 10e. Chapter 6 -
31
 Solid Solution Strengthening (cont.)
• Large substitutional impurities  compressive strains
• Large atoms diffuse to below edge disl. slip line:
– impurity (compressive) and disl. (tensile) strains partially cancel
– higher shear stress required to cause disl. motion

Fig. 7.18, Callister &

Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 6 -
32
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister 7e.
120
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: s y ~ C1/ 2

• Alloying increases sy and TS.

Chapter
336 -
 Viking Sword - Ulfberht
• Forged from high-
carbon steel – pure
metal, little impurities
• Baffled
archaeologists ->
technology to forge
such metal in
Western Europe was
not invented for
No large impurities
another 800 or more
(slag), carbon content
years, during the
three times higher
Industrial Revolution.
The difference in purity is seen by the consistency of the Ulfberht steel,
almost free of slag. (Screenshot/NOVA/National Geographic)

Ulfberht swords:
Lightweight and easy to wield in battle
Bent a little without breaking
Stayed sharper longer than other blades available at this time
https://www.knivesillustrated.com/ulfberht-viking-swords/ Chapter 6 -
 Solid-Solution Strengthening Summary
• Alloys are usually stronger than pure metals of the
solvent
• Interstitial or substitutional impurities in a solution cause
lattice strain
• counteract dislocation strains - hinder dislocation motion
• Impurities tend to diffuse and separate around the
dislocation core to find atomic sites more suited to their
radii - reduces the overall strain energy and “anchor” the
dislocation.
• As a result, smaller strain field around the dislocation – a
greater externally imposed shear stress is required to
move the dislocation – increased strength and hardness

Chapter
356 -
 Strategies for Strengthening:
3: Strain Hardening
Strengthening by increase of dislocation density

(Strain Hardening = Work Hardening = Cold Working)

• Ductile metals become stronger when

they are deformed plastically at
temperatures well below the melting
point.
• The reason for strain hardening is the
increase of dislocation density with
plastic deformation.
• The average distance between
dislocations decreases and dislocations
start blocking the motion of each other.
Chapter
366 -
 Effects of Stress at Dislocations

Adapted from Fig.

7.5, Callister 7e.

Chapter
376 -
 Strategies for Strengthening:
Cold Work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross-sectional area:
Ao  Ad
%CW = x 100
Ao
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
Ao
A o blank Ad
Adapted from Fig. roll
11.8, Callister 7e.

force
-Extrusion
-Drawing Ao
container die holder
die Ad force
tensile ram billet extrusion Ad
Ao
force container die
die
Chapter
386 -
 Strain Hardening (cont.)
As %CW increases
• Yield strength (σy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) increases.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

low carbon steel

Chapter 6 -
39
 Cold Working
• working (plastic deformation) increases dislocation density
• motion of each dislocation hindered by others

Chapter
406 -
 Dislocations During Cold Work
• Ti alloy after cold working:

• Dislocations entangle with one

another during cold work.
• As dislocation density
increases, distance between
dislocations decreases
• On average, disl.-disl. strain
interactions are repulsive
• Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.
0.9 mm

Adapted from Fig. 4.6, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 4.6 is courtesy of M.R. Plichta, Michigan Technological University.) Chapter 6 - 41
 Anisotropy in sy
• Can be induced by rolling a polycrystalline metal

- before rolling - after rolling

Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.11 is from
W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure
and Properties of Materials,
Vol. I, Structure, p. 140, John
Wiley and Sons, New York,
1964.)

rolling direction
235 mm
- isotropic - anisotropic
since grains are since rolling affects grain
approx. spherical orientation and shape.
& randomly
oriented.

Chapter
426 -
 Result of Cold Work
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2
s
• Yield stress increases
sy1 large hardening
as rd increases: sy0 small hardening

e
Chapter
436 -
 Effect of Cold Work on Mechanical
Properties
Example Problem:
Compute the percent cold work for a cylindrical Cu specimen
that has been cold worked by reducing its diameter from 15.2
mm to 12.2 mm.

Copper
Cold
Work

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm

Then, determine the yield stress,

tensile stress and ductility. Chapter 6 - 44
 Example Problem (cont.)

• Solution: æD ö 2
æD ö 2

p çç o ÷÷  p çç d ÷÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
%CW = 2
x 100
æD ö
p çç o ÷÷
è 2 ø

Do2  Dd2
= x 100
Do2

(15.2 mm)2  (12.2 mm)2

%CW = 2
x 100 = 35.6%
(15.2 mm)
Chapter 6 - 45
 Example Problem (cont.)
• Yield and tensile strength, and ductility (%EL) are
determined graphically as shown below for %CW = 35.6%

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

σy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Irons
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B. Bardes (Editor), 1978; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous
Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker (Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.]
Chapter 6 -
46
 Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Precipitation Strengthening
• Heat treatment – produce fine particles of an
impurity phase
• Hard precipitates are difficult to shear.
Ex: Ceramics in metals (SiC in Iron or Aluminum).

precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
“pinning” sites with
S
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

1
• Result: s y ~
S Chapter 6 - 47
 Application: Precipitation Strengthening
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister 5e.
(courtesy of G.H.
Narayanan and A.G.
Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with precipitates formed by alloying.

Micrograph showing Cu rich zones and precipitates in Al-4%Cu MH Jacobs,
University of
Birmingham

Chapter 6 - 48
aged for 6 hours at 180 °C aged for 2 hours at 200 °C aged for 45 mins at 450 °C
 Review: Strengthening Mechanisms for Metals
• Plastic deformation requires dislocation motion
• Strength & hardness increase as dislocation mobility
decreases
4 Primary Strengthening Mechanisms
Solid solution Strain hardening Precipitation
Grain size reduction
strengthening (cold working) Hardening

Chapter 6 -
49
 Summary of Stengthening

• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals and alloys.

• Strength is increased by making dislocation motion difficult.

• Particular ways to increase strength are to:

--decrease grain size
--solid solution strengthening
--cold work
--precipitate strengthening
• Up next:
Heating (annealing) can reduce dislocation density
and increase grain size. This decreases the strength.

Chapter 6 - 50
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain growth
• Plastic deformation increases dislocation density
(single and polycrystalline materials) and changes
grain size distributions (polycrystalline materials).

• This corresponds to stored strain energy in the system

(dislocation strain fields and grain distortions).

• When applied external stress is removed - most of the

dislocations, grain distortions and associated strain
energy are retained.

• Restoration to the state before cold-work can be done by

heat-treatment and involves two processes: recovery
and recrystallization. These may be followed by grain
growth.
Chapter
516 -
 (cont)
Stored energy in Process Stored energy
form of reduced by

Dislocations Recovery Decrease in

number of
dislocations/vol

Dislocations Recrystallization Decrease in

number of
dislocations/vol

Grain boundaries Grain Growth Decrease in grain

boundary area/vol

Chapter 6 - 52
 Heat Treatment of Cold-Worked Metal Alloys
• Heat treating cold worked metals changes the structure & properties
• Called annealing, this removes effects of cold work

• 1 hour at Tanneal decreases tensile strength & increases %EL

Three Annealing stages:

1. Recovery (100-200°C)
600 60 2. Recrystallization (200-500°C)
tensile strength (MPa)

tensile strength 3. Grain Growth (> 500°C)

ductility (%EL)
50
500
40

400 30
ductility 20
300
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
annealing temperature (°C) Fig. 7.22, Callister & RethwischChapter
10e. 6 - 53
 Recovery (100-200°C)
Heating increases diffusion which enhances dislocation motion
- decrease in dislocation density by annihilation
- formation of low-energy dislocation configurations (relieve internal strain)
Overall, relieve of the internal strain energy
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
diffusion atoms
and form
diffuse
to regions a perfect
atomic
of tension
extra half-plane plane.
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3. “Climbed” disl. can now tR
move on new slip plane
2. grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right Chapter 6 - 54
 Recrystallization (200-500°C)
• Formation of new grains that:
-- have a small dislocation density and are strain-free
-- are small and equiaxed
-- consume larger, cold-worked grains.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580C.
Chapter 6 - 55
 Further Recrystallization
• All grains in cold-worked material have been consumed/replaced.
• Mechanical properties changed by cold-working are restored to
initial values.
• Metal becomes softer, weaker, and more ductile

0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig.
7.21 (d), Callister
& Rethwisch 10e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds Chapter 6 - 56
 Recrystallization Temperature
TR = temperature at which recrystallization just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR decreases with increasing purity

• Hot working  deformation above TR

• Large deformations possible without changing mechanical
behavior
• Cold working  deformation below TR

Chapter 6 -
57
 Grain Growth
• Grain growth occurs as heat treatment continues.
Diffusion
-- Average grain size increases
across grain
-- Large grains grow at the expense of small boundary

Grain boundary motion

After 8 sec. at 580°C After 15 min. at 580°C
Chapter 6 - 58
Adapted from Fig. 9.21 (d),(e), Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
 Grain Growth (cont.)
• Empirical relationship—dependence of average grain
size (d) on heat treating time (t):
coefficient
dependent
on material
typ. ~ 2 and T. elapsed
time
d n  don = Kt

grain diam.
at time t. Initial average
grain diam.
before heat
treatment

Chapter 6 - 59
Recovery, Recrystallization, & Grain Growth
Summary
TR = recrystallization
temperature
annealing time = 1 h

TR
• Small-grained metals –
relatively strong and tough
at low temperatures
• Large-grained metals –
good creep resistance at
relatively high temperatures

Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(Adapted from G. Sachs and K. R. Van Horn,
Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
º Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 1940.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)Chapter 6 - 60
 Coldwork Calculations
A cylindrical rod of brass originally 0.40 in (10.2 mm)
in diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of 55,000 psi (380 MPa) and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter
must be 0.30 in (7.6 mm). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

Chapter
616 -
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
If we directly draw to the final diameter what happens?

Brass
Cold
Work

D o = 0.40 in D f = 0.30 in

æ Ao  Af ö æ Af ö
%CW = çç ÷÷ x 100 = çç1  ÷÷ x 100
è Ao ø è Ao ø
æ pDf2 4 ö æ æ 0.30 ö 2 ö
= çç1  ÷ x 100 = ç1  ç ÷ ÷ x 100 = 43.8%
pD 2
4 ÷ ç è 0.40 ø ÷
è o ø è ø
Chapter
626 -
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

420 540

Adapted from Fig.

• For %CW = 43.8% 7.19, Callister 7e.

– sy = 420 MPa
– TS = 540 MPa > 380 MPa
– %EL = 6 < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria…… what can we do?
Chapter
636 -
 Coldwork Calc Solution: Cont.

380 15

12 27

Adapted from Fig.

For TS > 380 MPa > 12 %CW 7.19, Callister 7e.

For %EL < 15 < 27 %CW

 our working range is limited to %CW = 12-27

Chapter
646 -
 Coldwork Calc Soln: Recrystallization
Cold draw-anneal-cold draw again
• For objective we need a cold work of %CW  12-27
– We’ll use %CW = 20
• Diameter after first cold draw (before 2nd cold draw)?
– must be calculated as follows:
æ Df 2 2 ö Df 2
2
%CW
ç
%CW = ç1  ÷
2 ÷
x 100  1  2
=
è D02 ø D02 100

Df 2 æ %CW ö
0 .5 Df 2
D02 =
= ç1  ÷  æ %CW ö
0 .5
D02 è 100 ø ç1  ÷
è 100 ø
0 .5
æ 20 ö
Intermediate diameter = Df 1 = D02 = 0.30 ç1  ÷ = 0.335 in
m
è 100 ø
Chapter
656 -
 Coldwork Calculations Solution
Summary:
1. Cold work D01= 0.40 in  Df1 = 0.335 in
æ 2 ö
ç æ ö
0.335 ÷
%CW1 = 1 ç x 100 = 30
ç è 0.4 ÷
ø ÷
è ø

2. Anneal (heat treat to allow recrystallization)

3. Cold work D02= Df1 = 0.335 in  Df 2 =0.30 m
æ æ 0 .3 ö 2 ö Fig 7.19 s y = 340 MPa
%CW2 = ç1  ç ÷
ç è 0.335 ø ÷
÷ x 100 = 20 
è ø TS = 400 MPa
%EL = 24
Therefore, meets all requirements

Chapter
666 -
 Summary - Strengthening
• Plastic deformation occurs by dislocation motion, called slip
• Slip systems: a slip direction in a slip plane:
-- Minimize atomic distortion from dislocation motion
• Deformation of polycrystals—grains change shapes
• Increase strength by decreasing dislocation mobility.
• Single-phase strengthening mechanisms for metals:
-- grain size reduction
-- solid solution strengthening
-- strain hardening (cold working)
-- precipitation strengthening
• Heat treatment of deformed metal specimens:
-- Processes
- Recovery
- Recrystallization
- Grain growth
-- Consequences: Softer, weaker, and more ductileChapter 6 - 67
 Summary - Influence of Annealing
• Cold work → increases hardness, strength, and resistivity while
reducing ductility and formability

• Recovery → Properties revert partially back to values before

cold working; achieve some decrease in dislocation density but
no observable microstructural change.

• Recrystallization → Deformed grains are 100% replaced by a

new set of equiaxed grains and properties are returned to
values for the annealed metal prior to any cold work. New grains
are smaller than original ones. Recrystallization temperature is
the temperature at which the metal has just completed
recrystallization in one hour.

• Grain growth → Average grain size increases with increasing

annealing time; small grains disappear, and large grains grow.
Grain boundary area/unit volume decreases.
Chapter
686 -