Introduction

The Flavian Amphitheatre, also known as the Colosseum, stands in Rome's arche-
ological center and brings in numerous visitors every day, attracted by its
fascinating background and advanced construction.

The Colosseum got its name from a massive statue (Colosso di Nerone) that
stood nearby. The Flavian dynasty's emperors commissioned its construction in
the first century AD. Until the end of the ancient period, it was used to host
highly popular events such as animal hunts and gladiatorial games.

The structure itself is the world's biggest amphitheater, capable of displaying

remarkably advanced stage technology alongside offering spectators services.
1.Information from History

The most well-known and biggest amphitheater in the Roman world is unques-
tionably the Colosseum, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre. It was the site
of the gladiatorial games and the exotic animal hunts, two of the most popular
games of ancient Romans.
An artificial pond was formerly present in the valley where the Colosseum now
sits. It was built by Emperor Nero to beautify the grounds of his magnificent
home, the Domus Aurea, or Golden House. The home extended the hills that
surrounded the Colosseum. After the death of the emperor, this mansion was
largely demolished and disassembled.
The Flavian Amphitheatre was constructed by the Vespasian of Flavian dynasty
who succeeded Nero and decided to give this land back to the people of Rome.
Vespasian began the construction in 72 AD and his son Titus inaugurated the
monument in 80 AD. This massive monument was built in only 8 years.
Approximately 60,000 slaves worked physically in the construction of the Colos-
seum who were overseen by Roman engineers, architects and artists.
The Colosseum had 76 numbered entrances for the individuals; some of these
Roman numbers are still visible on top of the entrance arch. There were 4 unnum-
bered grand entrances, one of which was for senators and emperor. The 2nd one
was for magistrates, the 3rd one was for gladiators and the 4th one was used to
take the dead body outside which was also called losers gate.
2. Measurements and techniques

The Colosseum measured 150 feet in height, 480 feet in width and 550 feet in
length. The construction of such a large and impressive edifice was only made
possible by sophisticated engineering technologies.
Travertine is used for the outside framework and the load-bearing pillars within.
It is put in opus quadratum, or big squared-off blocks arranged in overlapping
rows. In the late Republic and early Empire, white limestone known as travertine
was often utilized in Roman construction.
To avoid placing undue strain on the construction, the walls that connect the
several circular corridors are constructed using opus lateritium, a lighter
method, in the upper portion and travertine and tufa for the base.
The walls were coated with plaster, which was most likely painted in a variety of
colors and is still evident in many locations. Marble slabs lined the cavea's whole
surface. The flooring were composed of various materials depending on the
sector.
The amphitheater had fountains and latrines with a smart aqueduct system to
provide fresh water and remove filthy water during performances.
3. Games and History

The Colosseum hosted two sorts of shows: gladiator battles, known as munera,
and hunts of violent animals, known as venationes.
The munera were extremely popular among the Romans. The origin of these
games is debatable. The games are undoubtedly tied to burial ceremonies used
by the early Italic elite to demonstrate their superiority.
During the Republic, the most important families in Rome additionally organized
games to display their power and dignity.
Later, during the empire, the rules and organization of the gladiatorial games
were established. The games were organized by an editor who publicized the
program ahead of time by having it painted on the walls of public buildings and
private homes. In Rome, the editor par excellence was the emperor. But also the
young quaestores, who were senators at the beginning of their career, were
forced to finance the gladiatorial games annually. Game days began with a
parade, during which those who would take part in the shows passed before the
public, circling around the edge of the arena and brandishing their weapons,
accompanied by the editor.
The morning program included the venationes, which were the fights with
animals or between ferocious animals, that could resemble actual hunts. The
craze for hunting had spread through Rome after the wars of conquest of the
Mediterranean area. In this period, the first exotic animals were sent back to the
capital, such as lions, panthers, leopards, and hippopotamuses.
In the afternoon the real man-to-man gladiatorial combats took place.
4. Gladiators and prizes

The gladiators could be free citizens who took up this career out of a desire for
fame and fortune, or slaves who aspired to freedom by taking part in the game.
The average height of gladiators, who were mostly guys between the ages of 25
and 35, was around 170 cm which was within the typical range for the period.
However, not all gladiators were male. There is archeological evidence of female
gladiators, even though their rarity.
Usually, two gladiators engaged in fight until one was defeated. In the arena,
there were incitatores, or persons whose job it was to inflame the two competi-
tors and make the battle more fascinating and energetic.
Defeated gladiators who fought honorably were frequently offered grace, in
recognition of the enormous cost entailed when one of them was killed. To
ensure that a gladiator had died, his body was touched with a hot iron.
As a prize, the winners were typically given a palm and a crown, both of which
represented victory. These symbols were frequently accompanied with money
and other valuable items.
5. Arena and Underground

Looking over the railing, you can see the recreation of part of the arena, including
the historic hardwood floor where the games took place. The floor was covered
with sand, often known as arena in Latin.
Aside from the restored arena floor, you can see what remains of the region
beneath it. The sophisticated underground construction was mostly constructed
during the reign of Emperor Domitian, but it has been changed countless times
since then.These basement chambers held the game-related equipment and
machinery, as well as the weaponry, animal cages, and animals themselves.
Complex devices like pulleys, elevators, and tilting platforms were used to bring
the gladiators, wild animals, and stage sets to the middle of the arena via trap
doors.
The cavea, or seating area for spectators, wrapped around the arena for the
whole height of the Colosseum. The cavea's layers were vertically separated into
five sections.Within these sections, viewers were rigidly divided based on their
social status. The more distance a person sat from the arena, lower his social
level. The emperor and senators sat on the platform closest to the arena, as they
were the most important figures in the Roman state.
The Colosseum's events were accessible to the public, with free entry. Every
spectator got a permit that indicated the exact seat given to him. During
sessions, a special team of sailors would handle the velarium, which was a
massive canvas awning, sometimes divided into many sections, intended to
shelter spectators from the rain and sun.
It is difficult to tell how many people the Colosseum could accommodate.
Theories about this vary, but the number must have been between 40,000 and
70,000 individuals.
6. Monuments of the Colosseum

This terrace overlooks the Colosseum valley, which is bounded on the left by
Caelium Hill and on the right by the Palatine. In the middle stands the Arch of
Constantine. This is the largest of the ancient Roman arches. It has three gates,
of which the central one is the largest. Rome's biggest triumphal arch, standing
over 65 feet tall, welcomed processions commemorating the homecoming of a
victorious general and his army. The Senate constructed it in AD 312 to honor
Emperor Constantine, who defeated his opponent Maxentius at the Battle of
Milvian Bridge.
The Meta Sudans, a massive fountain with a circular base, can be seen in the
excavated area between the Colosseum and the Arch of Constantine. During the
Augustan Age, a massive conical fountain over 50 feet tall was installed. The
form was identical to the "metas" seen at the ends of the central spina in a Roman
circus, where racing chariots would turn. The term "Meta Sudans" refers to the
gentle flow of water from above, like sweating. The base was destroyed during
the fascist regime to make space for the construction of Via dei Fori Imperiali.
More to the right, you can see the massive foundations, colonnade, and apse of
Rome's Venus Temple, which was built during the reign of Emperor Hadrian. To
the left of the temple, the Via Sacra, or Sacred Way, rises towards the Roman
Forum.
7. Christianity and post-ancient history

The symbol of the cross on the arena level symbolizes the Christian belief that
Christians were killed here. We know that Christians have been killed and
tortured in open spaces, but we don't know for specific that this occurred in the
Colosseum. In truth, writings about victims murdered in the Colosseum was
composed several centuries after the persecution stopped. The Christian emper-
ors clearly condemned gladiatorial games, which were then prohibited.
There are two epigraphs in this entryway, one on each side between the two
pillars. These epigraphs record repair work done in the middle of the fifth centu-
ry A.D. The amphitheater's construction sustained damage in an earthquake in
484. This necessitated the reconstruction of the platform and the arena, as the
inscription states.
The Colosseum was maintained open only during hunts, the last of which
occurred in 523 A.D. Since then, the entire amphitheater has been abandoned
and decayed, and the underground compartments have gradually filled with dirt.
For several decades, the Colosseum was methodically looted as a quarry for
building materials, which were used to create other prominent structures such
as St. Peter's Basilica. This tradition persisted until the Jubilee Year of 1750,
when Pope Benedict XIV dedicated the Colosseum to the martyrs' remembrance
and the Passion of Christ.
The Roman Forum

The Roman Forum (Italian: Foro Romano), is a rectangular plaza surrounded by

the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the
city of Rome. Originally, there was a swamp covering the Forum. Reclaiming the
valley and building the Roman Forum didn't start until the latter part of the 7th
century BCE. For over a millennium, it was destined to continue as the hub of
public life. Buildings for political, religious, and commercial purposes were
constructed before civic basilicas, which were used for judicial purposes, were
constructed in the second century BCE. These monuments were constructed
over the generations. The old Roman Forum had already grown too small to
continue as the city's focus of government and representation by the end of the
republican era. Only important monuments were added by the several emperor
regimes.

The Arch of Titus

The arch was dedicated by the Roman Senate and populace to the memory of
Emperor Titus upon his death in 81 A.D., as the ancient inscription on the side
facing the Coliseum tells us.
On the façade, above the architrave, runs a small frieze showing the ceremony of
the triumph over the Judaeans, celebrated by Vespasian and Titus in 71 A.D.
Under the frieze are two winged victories with banners on the right and left of
the arch, and in the center is the goddess Roma.
Now look at the inside of the arch. At the sides two panels illustrate different
moments of the emperor's triumph over the Judaeans. In the panel on your left,
a group of bearers transport the most important items of the booty conquered in
Jerusalem. In the right-hand panel in the center, the emperor Titus advances on
a quadriga, preceded by the goddess Roma. To the right of the arch stand the
ex-convent and the Church of Santa Maria Nova, better known as Santa Frances-
ca Romana, which stands in the area of the Temple of Venus and Rome.

The Basilica of Massentius

You are inside the huge bulk of the Basilica of Massentius or Constantine, one of
the best-known buildings of late ancient Rome. It is about 6000 square metres in
size and is modelled on the large rooms of the imperial baths. Originally the area
it stands on was occupied by the Temple of the Penates, (the household gods), by
the state warehouses which stored spices (the Horrea Piperatària), and by
houses. Everything was demolished to make way for this imposing building.
Work on the basilica was started by the emperor Massentius and completed by
the emperor Constantine.
The interior was divided into three naves, the central nave being larger than the
other two. The naves were punctuated with tall grooved white marble columns
which have all been lost, except for the one which currently stands in the square
of Santa Maria Maggiore, where it was moved by Pope Paul V in 1613.

The Temple of Vesta

The round Temple of Vesta dates from the time of King Numa Pompilius (8th century
BC), when it was built to guard the Palladium (the image of Minerva) and other sacred
objects brought to Italy by Aeneas, and upon which it was believed the security of the
city depended.
The six Vestals were chosen from patri- cian maidens, the daughters of free men, and
had to keep the fire burning. They enjoyed special privileges, but if one broke her vow
of chastity, she was bur- ied alive in the Campo Scellerato (Field of Villains).
They lived nearby in the House of the Vestal Virgins, which was almost totally
reconstructed, along with the Temple of Vesta, by the Emperor Septimius Severus after
a fire in AD 191. The house, compa- rable to a modern convent, was divided into
different chambers which opened onto the large central atrium. Many statues and
interesting in- scriptions remain.
Both the temple and the house of the Vestals once belonged to the first Regia of Rome,
which ac- cording to tradition was the royal residence founded b the sec- ond king of
Rome, Numa Pompi-lius, and later home to the Pontifex Maximus (highest priest).

The Temple of Romulus

This round brick temple has come down to us almost intact, because in the
mid-6th century A.D. It was transformed into the vestibule of the Church of Santi
Cosma e Damiano. The temple had been built in memory of Romulus, the son of
the emperor Massentius, who died young in 309 A.D.
According to some scholars, this was the ancient temple dedicated to Jupiter
Stator. Legend has it that, during the battle against the Sabines, when Romulus
saw his soldiers retreating he promised Jupiter to build a temple to him in the
Forum if he succeeded in halting the enemy onslaught.
The temple was lined in marble, which was however completely removed during
the Renaissance, while the original bronze door is still conserved.
The Palatine Hill

This round brick temple has come down to us almost intact, because in the
mid-6th century A.D. It was transformed into the vestibule of the Church of Santi
Cosma e Damiano. The temple had been built in memory of Romulus, the son of
the emperor Massentius, who died young in 309 A.D.

According to some scholars, this was the ancient temple dedicated to Jupiter
Stator. Legend has it that, during the battle against the Sabines, when Romulus
saw his soldiers retreating he promised Jupiter to build a temple to him in the
Forum if he succeeded in halting the enemy onslaught.

The temple was lined in marble, which was however completely removed during
the Renaissance, while the original bronze door is still conserved.
Augustan Sanctuary
and Domestic Complex

Augustus, the first emperor of Rome, bought a house on the Palatine hill. But it
was so modest that the Senate decided to built him a proper residence at public
expense, placing two bay tees at the sides of the entrance; it was their sign of
gratitude to Augustus for having put an end to the long period of civil wars. The
house burnt down in 3 A.D. and many citizens offered large sums for its recon-
struction; however Augustus symbolically accepted just one gold coin from the
State and one silver denarius from private citizens. The public part of the house
contained a temple dedicated to Apollo and an altar with a statue of Vesta. When
Augustus decided to built his house on the Palatine hill, the hill was completely
covered with buildings.

Besides the religious area and the area of the huts of Romulus, the hillside had
numerous houses of illustrious personages. Augustus purchased some of these
properties and joined them together.