γνῶθι σεαυτόνtransliterated: gnōthi seauton

Know thyself

The Ancient Greek aphorism "know thyself" were inscribed above the entrance to the temple of Apollo
at Delphi, site of the sacred oracle. It was said to have been inscribed along with the words μηδὲν ἄγαν
(transliterated as mēden agan, meaning “nothing to excess”) in the forecourt of the Temple of Apollo at Delph.
The maxim may be interpreted in numerous ways.
Prins (2014) mentions that:
You could think of it (know thyself) in terms of limitations, of understanding your various strengths and
weaknesses; what you are capable of and what you are not. You can look at it in terms of mortality, in
knowing and accepting that as a human you are not immortal and will die. You may see it in terms of
knowing your place, in your family, work, and social networks. You may interpret “know thyself” as
Socrates did, as a process of questioning and testing one’s most fundamental beliefs.
Kagan in an Open Yale Course interprets the two maxims as:
“Know your own limitations as a fallible mortal and then exercise moderation because you are not
divine, you are mortal.”
This has been a subject of myriad of interpretation by philosophers since then. However the interpretation
is, the maxim is generally believed to invite people of self-reflection – to discern. Gregory of Nissa suggests that
“turning one’s gaze inward is the only way to bring to light one’s real essence, while looking to the outside makes
such task impossible” (Berolini, 2018). By taking the opportunity to gain knowledge to take responsibility for our
actions and how we live life.
To know thyself is first an imperative and then a requirement. It being imperative means that it is
necessary and must not be avoided. It is imperative to know the limits of the self so that one knows what one
is capable of doing and what one is not. One who does not know his limitations and strengths only has least
power to make change in his actions and his life in general. Thus, we can also say that it a requirement.
To know one’s self is a requirement for self-moderation, prudence, good judgment, and excellence of
the soul (Ortiz de Landazuri,2014). “Anything excessive is not good. Thus, it is prudent to strike the balance of
things. Too much power might lead to abuse; too many friends might decrease the quality of relationships; too
many problems might bring about depression; too much knowledge might make one think, as in the ancient
rulers, that there is nothing else to know about (Villafuerte, et.al, 2019)”, too much generosity might make one
financially stable, too much kindness might be taken advantage by other people. The list goes on. To know one
self makes one capable of understanding whether he is need of moderation so that he is able to desire what is
good and avoid those that will bring him harm. Through moderation one is able to have better control and create
sound judgment in his life.

PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE SELF

SOCRATES
“The unexamined is life not worth living”

He is the first philosopher who ever engaged in a systematic questioning of

the self. According to him, the true task of the philosopher is to know oneself. He
affirmed that “the unexamined life is not worth living.”
According to Socrates, most people never consciously contemplate the
question: What is the way we ought to live? Instead the course of their lives is
largely determined by their cultural values and norms which they unquestionably
adhere to. One of the reasons why most them refuse to contemplate on this matter
is because one must strive after self-knowledge and such knowledge is most
difficult to obtain. It requires one to gaze inward to understand the nature of their
true self.
 An examined life is a life that is duty bound to develop self-knowledge and a self-dignified with values
and integrity. The unexamined life is no better than animal life, the worst that can happen to anyone: to live but
die inside. He distinguished the “examined life” as having the wisdom to distinguish right from wrong, only in
recognizing your ignorance can a person truly know oneself. Once we know ourselves we may learn how to care
for ourselves, but otherwise we never shall (Socrates)

This only means that when we become readily contented with the information we receive from the social
media, for example, and submit to how virtual reality defines life, develop needs and wants, classify morality,
delineate universal values, and mystify human reason, we are not better off than the dogs who become
contented with the crumbs provided by their “masters.”

THE EXAMINED LIFE: 7 QUESTIONS

But what does the statement “unexamined life is not worth living” mean for us today? In order to
facilitate our reflection, I want you to read the following questions provided by Taibbi (2018) and reflect on
your answers:

1. How is my life going?

On an average day, is it good enough that you want to live it over? If you had to pick one emotion to
describe your overall state of mind, your everyday mood, what would it be?
2. When I look over the past 6 months, year, what have I learned from my mistakes?
Successfully running your life is a process of elimination where mistakes are opportunities to learn a
lesson so you don’t make the same mistakes again.
3. What is my one conflict?
Everyone is essentially grabbling with one core issue that your life is trying to resolve, one problem
that your life is circling around. When you look back over past 5, 10, 20 years and the problems
you've faced, is there something that links them all together? If you were to see your past played out
as movie, what would the title of that movie be?
4. Does my life reflect my values?
Take some time to consider and write down what your values may be — defining what is important
in life and what it means to you to be a good human being. The next part is evaluating whether there
is a gap between your values and the way they are reflected in your everyday life.
5. Do I have integrity?
Integrity comes from the Latin, integritas, meaning unified, whole. Do you think that what you believe
and what you present to others are the same? Is there a gap between them? What do you need to
do bring them back in line?
6. Has my vision of the future changed?
Have your current priorities and goals changed since the last time you checked in? Time to upgrade
who you are and what you want?
7. What do you need to change in the next 6 months, next year, to make your life better, be who you
want to be, have the future you envision?
Begin to think in terms of concrete behavioral change — bad habits you want to give up, new ones
to develop, parts of your personality that have been pushed to the sideline of your life that you want
to reclaim or expand. It's time to come up with a plan to begin this process.

Taibbi, R. (2018), The Examined Life: 7 Questions, Psychology Today,

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fixing-families/201806/the-examined-life-7-questions

DID YOU KNOW THAT…

Socrates is called the gadfly of the Athenian State?
A gadfly is a person who disrupts with the status quo of a society or community by posing novel, potentially upsetting
questions, usually directed at authorities. In this case, Socrates was a gadfly to the Athenian state because he wanted to
remind the people of Athens of their real duties and obligations and to focus on something greater than respite and comfort.

What is the nature of the true self?

He believed that every man is dualistic. This means that human person is composed of two important
aspects of his personhood. Body which refers to imperfect, impermanent aspect that is vulnerable to basic
emotions and actions, whereas soul refers to the perfect and permanent aspect that controls the body and
prevents it from falling into fallacy and inadequate behavior.
One’s true self according to Socrates is not to be identified with what we own, our social status or our
body. He maintained that our true self is our soul*. According to Socrates, the state of your soul refers to the
quality of our life thus it is only appropriate and necessary that we put considerable amount of time in making
our soul as good and beautiful as possible.
* the soul in the context of Ancient philosophers, as with Socrates did not have a religious connotation but rather
the thinking and willing subject

SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT…

What do you think is good and what is considered to be evil?

But what is good and what is evil?

A typical person would say that wealth, popularity, status or social acceptance are considered good and
poverty, death, pain and social rejection as evil. Socrates disagreed with these answers and viewed these as
extremely harmful. It is natural that we aspire for happiness and everything that we do, we do because it will
make us happy. Thus, it follows that what we think will make us happy are considered good and those will make
us suffer are considered evil. So if we have a mistaken perception of what is good, then whatever we chase as
aspire will eventually not bring us happiness even if we attain them.
There is only one supreme good that will bring us happiness according to Socrates and that is virtue. A
virtuous person is one whose character is made up of the moral qualities accepted as virtues. In Ancient Greece
commonly accepted virtues included courage, temperance, prudence, and justice. Since virtue leads to
happiness, it is necessary that one arrives of the true definition of virtue.
Knowledge = Virtue = Happiness
The individual person can have a meaningful and happy life only if he becomes v irtuous and knows the
value of himself that can be achieved through incessant soul-searching. Socratic-Method or “Introspection” – is
a method of carefully examining one’s thoughts and emotions – to gain self-knowledge.
If it is only by becoming virtuous that one can attain happiness, why has so much evil been committed
throughout history?
Evil is a result of ignorance. An individual who commits an evil act is one who is ignorant of the fact that
virtue alone is the one true good. Such an individual instead falsely assumes that wealth, power, and pleasure
are the greatest goods in life, and therefore if necessary will use evil means to attain these goods. In other
words, they are ignorant of the fact that by committing such evil acts they are tarnishing their soul and thus
condemning themselves to a perpetual unhappiness. As A.E. Taylor explains:
“Evil doing always rests upon a false estimate of goods. A man does the evil deed because he falsely
expects to gain good by it, to get wealth, or power, or enjoyment, and does not reckon with the fact that
the guilt of soul contracted immeasurably outweighs the supposed gains.” (Socrates, A.E. Taylor)

Let’s take a break:

After appreciating the core of knowing oneself as explained by Socrates in his philosophy or the concept
of virtue and knowledge, could you recognize the virtues you think you currently have or lack? How will your
knowledge of your won virtues affect your relationship with other people?

PLATO
“Self is an immortal soul”

He is a follower of Socrates who also believes that self is soul. His philosophy
focuses on a process of self-knowledge and purification of the soul. Plato devoted his
life to one goal: helping people to reach a state called:
εὐδαιμονία
eudaimonia

He believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who

consistently make sure that their Reason is in control of their Spirits and Appetites. He
believes that it is the responsibility of Reason to sort things out and exert control,
restoring harmonious relationship among the three elements of our selves:

The appetitive soul also termed as “physical appetite” that is in charge of

effortless craving required to stay alive like eating, drinking, sleeping, and having sex
that is only intended for married couples and must be controlled as well. The spirited soul is in charge of basic
emotions such as love, anger, and empathy. It is also termed as “Spirit or passion” that produces desires that
love victory and honor. This means that it is a part of psyche or mind that is excited when given challenges, or
fights back when agitated, or fights for justice when unjust practices are evident. In a way for example, this is
the hot-blooded part of the psyche. The rational soul also known as “reason” is forged by reason and intellect,
has to govern the affairs of the human person. Plato emphasizes that justice in the human person can only be
attained if the three parts of the soul are harmoniously with one another.
He conceptualized Psyche as core of the self that is composed of three elements mentioned above.
Nous which means the conscious awareness of the self. It is the super power that controls the affairs of the self.
One has to develop the nous and fill it with the understanding of the limits of the self, and the correct ethical
standards.
To enrich these three ideas of Plato, we take as an example - college life. College students want to hang
out with their friends, spend time on computer games, eat the favorite food, do thrilling activities that will excite
the whole gang. These satisfy the appetitive element of the psyche. However, when professors throw challenging
projects and assignments that would require tremendous amount of time and effort, the spirited psyche kicks in
to face the challenges head on. All these are going on because the mind or the nous is orchestrating these
pursuits according to the quality of the nous a person has. In other words, in order to have a good life, one has
to develop the nous, and fill it with the understanding of the limits of the self, and the correct ethical standards.

Let’s have a break:

What experiences do you have in the past that you can relate to desire of the appetitive soul? Did reason
affect your attain or avoidance of the desire?

LESSONS FROM PLATO

1. Think Harder
Plato proposed that our lives go wrong in large part because we almost never give ourselves
time to think carefully and logically enough about our plans. And so we end up with the wrong
values, careers and relationships. Plato wanted to bring order and clarity to our minds.
2. Love More Wisely
In Plato’s eyes, love is in essence a kind of education: you couldn’t really love someone if
you didn’t want to be improved by them. Love should be two people trying to grow together – and
helping each other to do so. Which means you need to get together with the person who contains
a key missing bit of your evolution: the virtues you don’t have. A good relationship has to mean we
won’t love the other person exactly as they are. It means committing to helping them become a
better version of themselves – and to endure the stormy passages this inevitably involves – while
also not resisting their attempts to improve us.

3. The Importance of beauty

Plato had asked the key question: why do we like
beautiful things? He found a fascinating reason: we recognise
in them a part of ‘the good’. There are lots of good things we
aspire to be: kind, gentle, harmonious, balanced, peaceful,
strong, dignified. These are qualities in people. But they are
also qualities in objects. We get moved and excited when we
find in objects the qualities we need but are missing in our lives.
Beautiful objects therefore have a really important function. They invite us to evolve in their
direction, to become as they are. Beauty can educate our souls. Plato sees art as therapeutic: it is
the duty of poets and painters (and nowadays, novelists, television producers and designers) to
help us live good lives.

4. Changing society
Plato spent a lot of time thinking how the government and society should ideally be. He was
the world’s first utopian thinker.
In his book, The Republic, Plato identifies a number of changes that should be made:
a. We need new heroes.
Plato was not impressed with the pre-occupation of the society with rich and
other sports celebrities during their time. For him, it matters who we look up to and admire
because they influence our ideas, values and behaviour. Bad heroes model unfavourable
character.
 Plato therefore wanted to give Athens new celebrities who are wise and good
people he called Guardians: models for everyone’s development. These people would
be distinguished by their record of public service, their modesty and simple habits, their
dislike of the limelight and their wide and deep experience. They would be the most
honoured and admired people in society.

b. We need censorship
Today censorship makes us
anxious. But Plato was worried about
the wrong sort of freedom. Then,
crazy religious notions and sweet
sounding, but dangerous, ideas
sucked up mass enthusiasm and lead
Athens to disastrous governments
and misguided wars.
Plato thought that continuous
exposure to numerous bewildering
voices was detrimental for us, so he
wanted to limit the activities of public
orators and dangerous preachers. He
would – nowadays – have been very
sceptical about the power of mass media.

c. Better Education
Plato believed passionately in education, but wanted to refocus the curriculum.
The primary thing we need to learn is not just maths or spelling, but how to be good: we
need to learn about courage, self-control, reasonableness, independence and calm.

d. Better Childhoods
Plato thought that bringing up children well was one of the most difficult (and
most needed) skills. He was acutely sympathetic to the child who is held back by the
wrong home environment.
So he proposed that many children would in fact be better off if they could take
their vision of life not from their parents but from wise guardians, paid for by the state. He
proposed that a sizeable share of the next generation would be brought up by people
more qualified than their own parents.

School Of Life(n.d), Plato, https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/the-great-philosophers-plato/

ST. AUGUSTINE
“You have made us for yourself., O Lord, and our heart is restless until it finds rest in You.”

He believed that the development of the self is achieved through self-

presentation which leads to self-realization. Through his book, Confessions,
Augustine creates a literary character out of the self where he plays the lead role in
the story of his own life. By telling this tale he transforms himself into a metaphor of
the struggle of both body and soul to find happiness, which exists only in God’s love.
All autobiography needs an audience, and Augustine’s audience is not his readers,
but God. Augustine transforms himself into a literary character to present himself
to God. Augustine presents it to teach a very pertinent lesson: only in the presence
of the Omnipotent and the Omniscient can the self attain happiness and
completeness. The Confessions is a work of prayer and repentance as well as
praise.

Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound doctrine of Christianity, Augustine
agreed that man is of a bifurcated (split/branched) nature: body dwells in the world and is imperfect and
continuously yearns to be with the Divine; is bound to die on earth and the soul is capable of reaching
immortality. Augustine argues that the soul must be a reality because of its capacity to reason (freewill) He
believed that we are eternal and the body is not. The soul is immortal because God created them and intended
them to be immortal. It bears the very image of God.
 He believes that man’s goal is happiness, however, most people, during his time, focused on earthly
happiness. They believed in the power to master themselves and in their ability to control nature and plot for
their own happiness and satisfaction – with goal of being perfected. He also thought their view on social order
and justice was problematic because it held the notion that wealth shows a degree of inner virtue and fame and
popularity was deemed ideal.

Augustine distinguished between what he called two cities, the City of Men and the City of God. The
latter was an ideal, a heavenly paradise, where the good would finally dominate, where power would be properly
allied to justice and where virtue would reign. But men could never build such a city, and should never believe
themselves capable of doing so. They were condemned to dwell only in the City of Men, which was a pervasively
flawed society, where money could never accurately track virtue. In Augustine’s formulation: ‘True justice has
no existence save in that republic whose founder and ruler is Christ.’ That is, the fully fair distribution of reward
is not something we can or should expect on earth.

Human beings alone, without God, is bound to fail. Only in God can man attain true and eternal
happiness, made possible in his contemplation of the truth and divine wisdom that refers to God himself. The
goal of every human person therefore is to attain this communion and bliss with the Divine by living his life on
earth in virtue
**Note that St. Augustine’s concept is largely religious because it through his spiritual conversation from sinfulness
that he was able to formulate his understanding of the self.

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS

“Experiencing that something exists doesn’t tell us what it is.”

Adapting some ideas from Aristotle, St. Aquinas contended man is

composed of two parts: matter comes from the Greek word “hyle” which means the
common stuff that makes up everything in the universe that includes man's body
while form come from the Greek word “morphe which means the essence of a
substance or thing that makes it what it is. In the case of the human person, the body
is something that he shares even with animals; what makes a human person a
human person is his soul, his essence.

It only means that the cells in man’s bod for example are more or less akin
to the cells of any other living, organic being in the world. However, what makes a
human person a human person and not a dog, or tiger for example is his soul, his
essence. For him, we don’t encounter ourselves as isolated minds or selves, but always an agent interacting
with our environment. Therefore, the soul is what animates the body, it is what makes us humans.

LET’S TAKE A BREAK:

What is it that you can never doubt?... It is the fact that you are thinking (doubting)…
I doubt therefore, I exist

RENE DESCARTES
“Cogito, Ergo Sum”

He is the father of Modern Philosophy, a rationalist (a person who bases his

opinions and actions on reason and knowledge not beliefs). He conceived of the
human person as having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise, The Meditations
of First Philosophy, he claims that there is so much that we should doubt.

The Act of thinking about the self- of being conscious – is in itself proof that
there is a self. If man reflects thoughtfully, he will realize that there are two
dimensions of human self: The self as Thinking Entity and The self as a physical
body.

“Cogito,ergo Sum” translated as “ I think therefore I am” or “ I doubt therefore I exist.” The discovery of
the cogito revolutionizes the way we view ourselves and the world around us. Human rationality which includes
the need of reason in order to evaluate our thoughts and actions. One should only believe that since which can
pass the test of doubt; if something is so clear and lucid as not to be even doubted, then that is the only time
when one should actually buy a proposition. According to him, everything must be subjected to doubts- our
existence, our world. The only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self for even if one doubts
oneself, that only proves that there is a doubting self, a thing that thinks and therefore, that cannot be doubted.
He quoted: “But what then am I? A thinking thing. It has been said. But what is a thinking thing? It is a
thing that doubts, understands, affirms, denies, wills, refuses; that imagines also, and perceives.”
The self, then, is also a combination of two distinct entities: the cogito refers to the thing that thinks,
which is the mind the extenza refers to the extension of the mind, which is the body. In Descartes view, the body
is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the mind; it is the mind that makes man a man.

The concept of Descartes will best explain through human rationality. For example, human being needs
a reason in order to evaluate his thoughts and actions.

If you would be a real seeker after truth, it is necessary that at least once in your life you doubt, as far
as possible, all things. ~Rene Descartes

JOHN LOCKE
“Tabula Rasa”

Self is comparable to an empty space (tabula rasa) where everyday

experiences contribute to the pile of knowledge that is put forth on that empty
space. Experience is an important requirement to developing a sense of self

Arguing against both the Augustinian view of man as originally sinful and
the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical
propositions, Locke posits an “empty” mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by
experience, and sensations and reflections being the two sources of all our ideas.
Self- is compared to an empty space where everyday experiences contribute to the
pile of knowledge that is put forth on that empty space

Locke assets that “consciousness can be extended backwards to any past action or thought, so far
reaches the identity of that person; it is the same self now as it was then; and it is by the same self with this
present one that now reflects on it, that that action was done” (Locke). More explicitly stated, if one can remember
some experience, Locke’s says that one in fact had that experience. Personal identity is a matter of psychological
continuity requiring memory. It means that it is not in the brain that makes up the self, but in the consciousness.

This means to say that who you are now is largely based on your experiences and self-reflection. It
also implies that who you are is based on what you did in the past, regardless whether you are proud or you
cringe when you look back, and what you learned from that experience.

No man's knowledge here can go beyond his experience. ~John Locke

DAVID HUME
“The ego is a fictional idea”

He is an empiricist who believes that one can know only what

comes from the senses and experiences and argues that the self is nothing else
but a bundle of impressions. If one tries to examine his experiences, he finds that
they can all be categorized into two:
(1) impressions refers to the basic objects of our experience or sensation; they
form the core of our thoughts; they are the products of our direct experience
with the world, yet they are temporary while
(2) ideas refers to the copies of impressions and are thus not as lively and vivid
as our impressions.

He quoted: “Self is simply a bundle or collection of different perceptions, which succeeded

each other with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a perpetual flux and movement." In short, he believes that
the self is nothing but a bundle of impressions and since impressions are subjective, temporary, provisional,
prejudicial and even skewed – then they cannot be persisting, thus, he claims, there is not self. The ego is merely
a fictional idea.

IMMANUEL KANT
“It is beyond a doubt that all our knowledge that begins with experience.”

Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume's account that everything

starts with perception and sensation of impressions; however, he believes that the
things that men perceive around them are not just randomly infused into the
human person without an organizing principle that regulates the relationship of
these impressions.
For him, there is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions
that men get from the external world (e.g., time and space are ideas that one
cannot find in the world but is built in our minds). Kant calls this the apparatuses
of the mind.
Along with the apparatuses of the mind goes the "self". Without the
self, one cannot organize the different impressions that one gets in relation to his
own existence.

Kant therefore suggests that it is an actively engaged intelligence in man that synthesizes all knowledge
and experience Thus, the self is not just what gives one his personality; in addition, it is also the seat of
knowledge acquisition for all human persons Our rationality makes sense the perceptions we have in our
experiences. He also believes that perception does not belong to the world, but to the self.

It only means that our rationality unifies and makes sense the perceptions we have in our experiences
and make sensible ideas about ourselves and the world. For example, we have the capacity to solve the problem
of the ability of the self to perceive the world.

SIGMUND FREUD
“Early childhood experiences that create high levels of anxiety are repressed into unconscious, where they
may influence behavior, emotions, and attitudes for years.”
The psyche is structured into three parts (i.e., tripartite), the id, ego, and superego, all developing at
different stages in our lives (also known as three layers of the self). These are systems, not parts of the brain,
or in any way physical.
ID (Pleasure Principle) is the primitive and instinctive component of
personality consists of all the inherited (i.e., biological) components of personality
present at birth, including the sex (life) instinct – Eros (which contains the libido), and
the aggressive (death) instinct - Thanatos. It is the impulsive (and unconscious) part
of our psyche which responds directly and immediately to the instincts. It remains
infantile in its function throughout a person’s life and does not change with time or
experience, as it is not in touch with the external world; it is not affected by reality,
logic or the everyday world, as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind. It
operates on the pleasure principle which is the idea that every wishful impulse should
be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences. When the id achieves its
demands, we experience pleasure when it is denied we experience ‘unpleasure’ or
tension.
EGO (Reality Principle) refers to the part of the id which has been modified by the direct influence of
the external world. It develops to mediate between the unrealistic id and the external real world. It is the decision-
making component of personality, it operates according to the reality principle, working out realistic ways of
satisfying the id’s demands, often compromising or postponing satisfaction to avoid negative consequences of
society. The ego considers social realities and norms, etiquette and rules in deciding how to behave. Like the
id, the ego seeks pleasure (i.e., tension reduction) and avoids pain, but unlike the id, the ego is concerned with
devising a realistic strategy to obtain pleasure. The ego has no concept of right or wrong; something is good
simply if it achieves its end of satisfying without causing harm to itself or the id. If the ego fails in its attempt to
use the reality principle, and anxiety is experienced, unconscious defense mechanisms are employed, to help
ward off unpleasant feelings (i.e., anxiety) or make good things feel better for the individual. The ego engages
in secondary process thinking, which is rational, realistic, and orientated towards problem-solving. If a plan of
action does not work, then it is thought through again until a solution is found. This is known as reality testing
and enables the person to control their impulses and demonstrate self-control, via mastery of the ego.

SUPEREGO (Moral and Idealistic Principle) refers to the incorporation of the values and morals of
society which are learned from one's parents and others. It develops around the age of 3 – 5 during the phallic
stage of psychosexual development. Its function is to control the id's impulses, especially those which society
forbids, such as sex and aggression; it also has the function of persuading the ego to turn to moralistic goals
rather than simply realistic ones and to strive for perfection. It consists of two systems: conscience - can punish
the ego through causing feelings of guilt, ego-ideal - is an imaginary picture of how one ought to be, and
represents career aspirations, how to treat other people, and how to behave as a member of society. Behavior
which falls short of the ideal self may be punished by the superego through guilt. The super-ego can also reward
through the ideal self when one behaves ‘properly’ by making him feel proud.

We are certain about the many wrong things that may be bought about by our actions, but we never
understand why there is something somewhere inside us that makes many of us do what we know is wrong.

GILBERT RYLE
“Man need not to be degraded to a machine by being denied to be a ghost in a machine. He might, after all, be
a sort of animal, namely, a higher mammal.”
This means to solve the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for
a long time in the history of thought by blatantly denying the concept of an internal, non-
physical self. For him, what truly matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his
day-to-day life. Mind is not separated from the body (contradict with Descartes’ dualism)
mind-ghost in the machine. He suggests that the "self" is not an entity one can locate
and analyze but simply the convenient name that people use to refer to all the behaviors
that people make. It simply says that mental processes are merely intelligent acts. There
is no internal, non-physical self.
Ryle said that the “thinking I” will never be found because it is just a “ghost in
the machine”. The mind is never separate from the body. The physical actions or
behaviors are dispositions of the self. The mind is a disposition of the self.
This only means that all manifestation in physical activities or behavior for example are the dispositions
of the self, the basis of the statement; “I act therefore I am” or “You are what you do”.

PAUL AND PATRICIA CHURCHLAND

“Our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural activity”

Paul and Patricia Churchland promoted the position called

“eliminative materialism” which bring forth neuroscience into the fore of
understanding the self. It simply means that Philosophy and Psychology
has failed to provide satisfactory position in understanding the self. They
tossed aside the concept of dualism and the brain and adhered to
materialism - the belief that nothing but matter exist, if it cannot be
recognized by the senses, then it is akin to a fairytale in his identity
theory, the minds are identical to a particular brain state. Our mind and
individuality are based upon unique neurological assemblies of one type
of brain function.

According to Churchland our behavior appears to have its basic cause in neural activity. It is not remotely
impossible that the folk psychology will be replaced by neurobiology. As the Churchland’s wanted to predict,
when people wanted to ask what is going on with themselves, they might as well go for MRI scan or CT scan to
understand the present condition of the brain and how it currently works.

Let’s take the idea that why should we believe in a mind when science is proving that mental health is
connected to the physical brain? For example, depression is strongly linked to irregular amounts of brain
chemicals. Yes, some people still say things like, 'She's lost her mind.' However, neuroscience says, No, it's a
physical problem and we aim to fix it.

Adding to this, Churchland challenges the concept of the mind by using the misfortune of traumatic brain
injury. With this, for example, eliminative materialism asks 'if the mind is the seat of self, why does brain injury
alter a person's personality?' If the mind was a real separate entity, wouldn't it retain a person's sense of self
despite damage to a physical organ? Since brain damage alters a person's personality, Churchland asserts that
the concept of self originates in the physical brain, not an invented mind.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY
“The world and I are within one another”

A phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body bifurcation is a

futile endeavor and an invalid problem. Unlike Ryle who simply denies the "self," he
instead says that the mind and body are intertwined that they cannot be separated
from one another.

For him, the living body, his thoughts, emotions, and experiences are all
one. He proposes treating perception as a causal process. It means that our
perceptions are caused by the intricate experiences the self, and processed
intellectually while distinguishing truthful perceptions from illusory. Therefore, the
self is taken as a phenomenon of the world. He also believes that perception does
not belong to the world, but to the self.
Here is a summary of the philosophers and their viewpoints:
PHILOSOPHICAL STANDPOINTS
PHILOSOPHER ORIENTATION PHILOSOPHY DESCRIPTION
Classical Antiquity
Socrates Idealism Socratic  Knowledge is the personation of good while ignorance is
Philosophy that of evil.
 Self-knowledge is the ultimate virtue. As the ultimate
virtue, it will lead to ultimate happiness.
Plato Idealism Dualism and  Moral virtue is rooted in the intellect and leads to
Idealism happiness.
 Wisdom and knowledge lead to virtue which will lead to
happiness.
Aristotle Empiricist Aristotelian  Ideal is found inside phenomena and the universals
Philosophy inside the particulars.
 Ideas are essence and phenomena is matter.
 Matter and essence need each other.
Middle Ages
St. Platonism Neo-platonism  All knowledge leads to God.
Augustine  Only the pure in hear can see God.
 Love of God, faith in him, and understanding of His
Gospel will ultimately lead to happiness
Renaissance
Rene Rationalist Mind-Body  I think, therefore, I am.
Descartes Dualism  The mind and soul can exist without the body.
 Establishing the distinction of soul from the body can
make people believe in the afterlife and the soul’s
immortality.
John Locke Empiricist Theory of  It is in consciousness along that identity exists, not in the
Personal Identity body and soul.
 There is a distinction between man and person.
 The soul may change, but consciousness remains intact.
David Hume Empiricist Skeptical  All knowledge passes through the senses.
Philosophy  Separate ideas can be joined in the mind.
 There is no self, only a bundle of perceptions.
Immanuel Rationalist/ Metaphysics of  Reason is the final authority of morality.
Kant Empiricist the Self  There is inner self and outer self.
 The inner self includes rational reasoning and
psychological state.
 The outer self includes the body and physical mind,
where representation occurs.
Modern Times
Gilbert Ryle Empiricist The Concept of  I act, therefore, I am.
Mind  The mind is not the seat of the self. It is not a separate
parallel thing to our physical body.
 The mind is a category mistake, brought about by
habitual use. The only way it can affect the other is
through the external world.
Patricia Empiricist Neurophilosophy  A fully matured neuroscience will eliminate the need for
Churchland beliefs since “they are not real.”
 The physical brain gives us a sense of self.
Maurice Existentialist/ Phenomenology  Both empiricism and intellectualism are flawed in nature.
Merleau- Empiricist of Perception  We are our bodies.
Ponty  Our bodily experiences of not detach the subject/object,
mind/body, rational/irrational.
From:
Macayan, J., Pinugu, J. and Castillo, C. (2018), Understanding the Self Outcome-Based Module, C & E Publishing,
Quezon City, Philippines
PRINTED REFERENCES

Alata, E. e. (2019). Understanding the self. sampaloc manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

Brawner, D. A. (2018). Understanding the Self. C & E Punblication Inc.

Buford, T.O. (2011) Know Thyself: An Essay in Social Personalism. Plymouth, UK: Lexington Books.
Copruz, R. E. (2019 ). Understanding the Self. C & E Punblication Inc.

E., B. (2007). Man in the Context of His Nature, The Human Person: Not Real, But Existing 2e, pg 29-130. C &
E Publication Inc.

Macayan, J., Pinugu, J. and Castillo, C. (2018), Understanding the Self Outcome-Based Module, C & E
Publishing, Quezon City, Philippines

Villafuerte S., Q. T. (2018). Understanding the Self pg 1-11. Nieme Publising House Co.ltd.

ONLINE REFERENCES:

Acedemy of Ideas (2013), The Ideas of Socrates, https://academyofideas.com/2013/04/the-ideas-of-socrates/

Bell, D (2013), Gnothi Seauton: On Being Human, https://www.snsociety.org/gnothi-seauton-on-being-human/

Bertolini, S (2018), Know thyself, https://ancientgreekcourses.com/anthropology/know-thyself/

Piccirillo, R. (2010), The Lockean Memory Theory of Personal Identity: Definition, Objection, Response,
http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1683/the-lockean-memory-theory-of-personal-identity-definition-
objection-response

Prins, L (2014), Gnothi Seauton, Delphi, and the Center of the Self, http://lauraprins.com/gnothi-seauton-
delphi-center-self/

School Of Life(n.d), Plato, https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/the-great-philosophers-plato/

SparkNotes, Saint Augustine (A.D. 354–430): The Confessions,

https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/augustine/section1/

Taibbi, R. (2018), The Examined Life: 7 Questions, Psychology Today,

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/fixing-families/201806/the-examined-life-7-questions
Man is a Social Animal
INTRODUCTION
“Man is by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our notice or more
than human. Society is something that precedes the individual. Anyone who either cannot lead the common life or is so self-
sufficient as not to need to, and therefore does not partake of society, is either a beast or a god. ” ― Aristotle, Politics
We often hear the quotation: Man is a social animal, but what does it mean?
No human person can live alone. In order to survive, he must be able to satisfy certain natural basic needs. In order to
effectively do this, he must enter into a relationship with his fellowmen in order to create mutual dependence. Mutual dependence
is said to begin between an embryo and the mother and continues ‘till his last breath – from womb to tomb as they say. The need
can be physical, socio-emotional, mental, or financial even, and many others. Let’s take your dependence from your parents as an
example. For now, you may be dependent in your parents in terms of food, shelter, finances or may be in terms of emotional support.
It may not seem apparent, but your parents also gain something from you like when you are able to help in the household chores, a
sense of purpose even! There is mutuality.
What is sociology?
The American Sociological Association defines sociology as:
…the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behavior. Sociologists investigate
the structure of groups, organizations, and societies, and how people interact within these contexts
From a sociological perspective, the self is a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves, others,
and to social systems that shaped through interaction with other people (Crossman, 2018). When asked to introduce ourselves, we
would often say traits such being thrifty, altruistic, generous, fun to be with, competitive, quiet, shy, frank and so on. These traits,
although unique for a particular individual and are psychological in a sense, can be understood in a sociological perspective. When
someone says he is generous, he is actually describing himself in relation to other people. What he means to say is that he is liberal
in giving what he has to other people. The same also applies when someone says he is quiet or shy, for one cannot say he has no basis
for comparison. Thus, a person is said to be shy because, unlike other people, he may have the tendency to be hesitant in
approaching or mingling with other people.

The Self as Product of Modern Society

The Self as Product of Modern Society
Because of modernization, there is said to be the “destruction of the traditional way of life” that has “delocalized” the self
(Mannheim, 1950). The self has been “dislocated and deracinated” (David, 2004). This means to say that modernization has
disrupted and disturbed the conventions on how people live or has isolated us from our native or customary culture. What seemed
to be the usual way of doing things are now being consistently modified to adapt to the changing needs and possibilities that
modernization has brought. People are now presented, not only with the traditional way of doing this within their culture, but also
to the culture of others from societies. The stability of one's self-identity is no longer anchored on pre-given tradition-bound
definition of the self - it is now freely chosen (David, 2004)
Let’s take the traditional wardrobe as an example. We would think that traditional Filipinos would wear rather conservative
but ornate and embroidered rich outfit but today, options are almost unlimited. We are influence, not only by the US, Spanish,
and Japanese culture (as with colonial period) but also by the culture of Koreans, Thais, and Chinese among others. We see a
rise of concept stores and online shops that offers numerous varieties of outfits. We are no longer duty-bound to wear
conventional outfits even when we are invited to attend weddings or other celebrations!
However, more choices often do not equate to a better or a meaningful life. Sometimes it often results to decision paralysis
and even decreased satisfaction (Schwartz, 2004). In this sense, the ability to choose who we want to be no longer liberates but
debilitates. Simmel (1971) tells us that the struggle for one’s individuality is only possible in modern society where religio-theological
traditions are gradually replaced by rational and scientific calculations; and the intimate personal affiliations are replaced by
exceedingly impersonal associations brought about by urbanized way of life.
How many “friends” do you have? You would probably think of the number of friends you have accepted or invited on
Facebook or the number of people you have in all the group chats you have in messenger… but how many friends do you really have?
Modernization has allowed us to communicate with people in numerous ways. Then, you can only meet a friend in person or maybe
through phone and you can only expect to be able to deepen your relationship by physically hanging out or by sending out a snail-
mail. Today, connecting with some people you know is almost always possible at any time of the day and anywhere you are.
Although this can be beneficial for many, we cannot discount the fact that this possibility has also changed how we value our
relationships. We have formed more impersonal relationships than meaningful ones. Some have been pre-occupied in gaining more
“followers” with hopes of improving their esteem – a misconception on how we put worth or recognize the value of our selves.
Something to think about: How you think modernization changed the way courtship is being done? Do you think it has improved or
worsened?
The delocalized self poses the following problems: 2. Alienation: Derived from Marx, alienation refers to an
“unhappy condition” and is the process whereby the worker
1. The newfound freedom threatens the very authenticity of is made to feel foreign to the products of his/her own labor.
the self: As we consistently create ourselves from the
limitless possibilities and options, we ask ourselves the Purdue University (2002) explains that
question: Is this really me? Is this what I want?
In capitalism, the worker is exploited insofar as he
does not work to create a product that he then sells
 to a real person; instead, the proletariat works in specialization, sees only disembodied hearts, lungs,
order to live, in order to obtain the very means of life, livers or kidneys”.
which he can only achieve by selling his labor to a
capitalist for a wage (as if his labor were itself a 4. Dehumanization of the self: The birth of modern society
property that can be bought and sold). The worker is allows infinite possibilities for self-cultivation but it also
alienated from his/her product precisely because s/he simultaneously suggests dehumanization of the self. In
no longer owns that product, which now belongs to Herbert Kelman's work on dehumanization, humanness has
the capitalist who has purchased the proletariat's two features:
labor-power in exchange for exclusive ownership over  "identity" (i.e., a perception of the person "as an individual,
the proletariat's products and all profit accrued by independent and distinguishable from others, capable of
the sale of those products. making choices") and
3. Objectification of the body: In social philosophy,  "community" (i.e., a perception of the person as "part of an
objectification is the act of treating a person as an object ora interconnected network of individuals who care for each
thing (Arluke, 1988). As presented in the essay Life in the other").
Medicalized Society: When a target's agency and embeddedness
in a community are denied, they no longer
“These days, nothing strikes more fear in me than a elicit compassion or other moral responses.
doctor who no longer looks at patients as total
human beings, but from the narrow prism of

Solution: For the individual to discover the “true” and “authentic” part of himself/herself to realize his/her potentials, there is a
need to abolish repressive social constraints. What does be authentic mean then? Brené Brown in her book: The Gifts of
Imperfection states that “Authenticity is the daily practice of letting go of who we think we are supposed to be and embracing who
we actually are.” Choosing authenticity means:
 cultivating the ability to be imperfect
 allowing ourselves to be vulnerable, and
 setting boundaries.
The concept of social constraints enters when society sets its own standards on how you should look, behave and sometimes
even feel. Being authentic means letting go of these standards to follow your passion regardless of who you disappoint and how you
may be perceived by others. “When we are being authentic, we are being vulnerable; we are showing all parts of us, the good with
the bad. When we do this, we allow for more intimate and honest relationships, and we allow for true acceptance and unconditional
love. (The Center for Growth)”

The Self as Necessary Fiction

Self as Necessary Fiction

Some modern philosophers do not believe that the self is a solid or metaphysical entity having a continuous identity given
that there is nothing in the self that persists or endures through time. For instance, it possible for individuals to remember
something they have not experienced or the possibility the individuals have the tendency to acquire amnesia and experience
psychological disorientation due to brain injury.
Self for Nietzsche is the sum of individual’s action, thoughts and feelings and is nothing more than a metaphor –a
representation of something abstract. Nietzsche contends that all belief systems are ‘necessary fictions.’ Necessary fictions are
beliefs that cannot be proven to be true and sometimes can be proven false, but are, nonetheless, necessary to sustain life. They
are fictions because they cannot be proven. They are necessary because without them we would be rudderless in a world of chaos.
Thus, they are convictions that satisfy the need for stability.
Tenbusch (2015) states that necessary fictions
….are necessary because people need some sense of certainty in a world of constant change. Necessary fictions create
meaning out of the chaos of lived experiences. They are formulations about what feelings and behaviors mean at a given
time. One’s experiences can be organized into a coherent and inclusive story, but that story cannot be proven. Hence it is
illusory and temporary.

Did you know that the quote “That which does not kill us makes us stronger” is associated with Nietzsche?

Post-Modern View of the Self

Post-Modern view of the Self
The self is a narrative, a text written and rewritten. The self is a story and therefore dynamic, bound to change every now
and then. Self in post modernity is complicated by electronic mediated virtual interaction of cyber self in cyberspace. This means
that our identity is now created not merely by our physical interaction with other people but is complicated our interactions in the
digital world.

Nicola Green states:

"Every little piece of information that you post on the internet - the messages you write, the website you visit, the files you
download, the e-mail addresses you contact, the books, tapes, CDs, and airplane tickets you order on the Internet, and the
credit card numbers you give - all become the raw data from which someone out there can piece together an identity, a
virtual version of who you are."
 This is called digital footprints. Your digital footprint is the “data that’s created through your activities and communication
online. This can include more passive activities, such as if a website collects your IP address, as well as more active digital activities,
such as sharing images on social media” (Athanasiadis, 2018)

The following are manifestations of the self in post modernity:

1. Information technology “dislocates” the self; thus, the self can expect for example a Filipino migrant
is said to be “digitalized” in cyberspace who is living in Canada combine the staple
food, rice, or a variety of pansit with other
We are not able to present and express cuisines there.
ourselves online.
3. Post-modern selves are “protean selves”
2. Global migration produced multicultural identities
A protean self refers to a “mutable form of
It has produced a mixture of cultures that human personality that changes fluidly from
may be a combination of country of origin situation to situation (IGI Global)”. *
and the new country where one resides. We

*In other resources such as that of David (2004), it is also called “pluralized” self. This implies that because post-modernity, we are
able to create different versions of our selves particularly if we are dealing with various social media sites. For example, if you have a
Twitter or Instagram account, you would probably agree that what you post in those accounts are quite different in Facebook. The
same concept can be likened to what Anderson (1997) mentioned as multiphrenia.

ReWriting Self as an Artistic Creation

Rewriting the Self as an Artistic Creation
One thing is needful. -- To "give style" to one’s character-- a great and rare art! It is practiced by those who survey all the strengths
and weaknesses of their nature and then fit them into an artistic plan until every one of them appears as art and reason and even
weaknesses delight the eye. Here a large mass of second nature has been added; there a piece of original nature has been removed --
both times through long practice and daily work at it. Here the ugly that could not be removed is concealed; there it has been
reinterpreted and made sublime…
-Nietzsche, Gay Science
Nietzsche contends that the unity of the self is not pre-given but accomplished through conscious effort. Individuals
therefore must fashion, care for and cultivate themselves in order to transform self through beautiful work of art.
Concealing the “ugly” does not refer to rewriting the narrative (as that would be impossible) but rather redescribing one’s
self by reinterpreting the past. For example, one might have experienced having a failing grade in his academic history. This event
might be used by someone to describe himself as a student, probably thinking that he might not be able to do well in schooling
particularly in a certain program to a point that he/she would label him/herself as inferior to his colleagues. But one might also get
the idea that the failure was the event, a turning point that have led him to where is right now –say a wake-up call to pursue
something that he is passionate about. Life is about creating ourself even if it means re-interpreting our experiences. As Nietzsche
would put it: There are no facts, only interpretations.
Self-Creation and Collective Identity
Self Creation and Collective Identity
The self is a "body moving in space" and time (Kempen, 1998). The self is unthinkable apart from its physical body. It is
through the body that the self takes different spatial positions and expressions in social interaction. This implies that an individual's
identity is largely associated with its position in space and its corresponding historical dimension. Simply put, the identity is
influenced by the community from it belongs and its collective memory. Collective memory refers to the shared pool of memories,
knowledge and information of a social group that is significantly associated with the group's identity. (Roediger and Abel, 2015)
What we mean to say here is that an essential aspect of self-creation is formed within “imagined communities”. Imagined
communities is a term coined by Benedict Anderson (1983) Anderson famously defines the nation as imagined “because the
members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the
minds of each lives the image of their communion” (p. 6). The nation is defined as a community because “regardless of the actual
inequality and exploitation that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship” (p.
7). “Therefore, the concept of imagined community assumes that nations, national identities, and nationalism are socially
constructed; “imagined” in this context then does not mean false, but instead points to the socio-cognitive element in the
construction of the nation (Jones, 2007)” It is an idea that is being recognized by a group of people paving the way for its existence.
How are Filipinos such as the OFWs and immigrants able to create Filipino communities even if they are from other countries?
What makes them a community? What is the basis of membership? What does being a Filipino mean?
MEAD'S THEORY OF THEN
SELF
ARTICLE READING
Victor of Aveyron: A feral child who supposedly lived in the French wilderness until he was 12
Jun 21, 2017 Domagoj Valjak
“Feral child” is a term used to describe youngsters who grew up isolated from human communities and have never been
accustomed to fundamental conventions such as language, education and rules for socially acceptable behavior. Throughout history,
cases of feral children have been documented. In many such instances, the children were raised by wild animals, people believed.
However, in recent times, the authenticity of many of these cases has been challenged.
 An illustration of Victor of Aveyron

Stories of feral children appear in folklore and fiction. In 1894, Rudyard Kipling published a famous collection of stories
named The Jungle Book. It follows the adventures of Mowgli, a feral child raised by wolves who learns the languages of various wild
animals and establishes personal connections with them. By the end, Mowgli learns to abide by conventions and becomes a
functioning member of civilized society. The Jungle Book popularized the motif of feral children in literature and pop culture, and
Mowgli became a beloved children’s character known for his compassion, kindness, and adaptiveness.
In reality, “feral children” rarely integrated fully into society. The lack of proper care, emotional stimulation, and education
hindered their social progress and delayed their mental development. Feral children often became the subjects of scientific studies
and debates that stigmatized them and turned them into lab subjects, used to prove scientific theories.
Such was the case of Victor of Aveyron, a French feral boy who lived in the woods of the Aveyron region in the late 1790s
and was allegedly raised by wolves. Victor had reportedly been sighted by local villagers as early as 1794, and in 1797, he was caught
by local hunters and brought to a town. A young widow cared for him there for several months, but he managed to escape and
return to the woods. He voluntarily emerged from the woods in 1800.
The boy was then around 12 years old and couldn’t speak any language. The physicians who first examined him thought
that he might have been deaf and mute. After he was examined at the National Institute of the Deaf in Paris, it was determined that
he was completely healthy but had never come into contact with any language. He was comfortable being naked and had no
problem with roaming around in cold weather, which led the researchers of the time to conclude that he was well accustomed to
the harsh conditions of the wilderness.
When Victor of Aveyron was found, the Enlightenment movement was in full swing; many prominent scientists of the time
believed that the ability to learn and abide by conventions is the only feature which differentiates humans from animals. Several
researchers, including a famous instructor of the deaf named Roch-Ambroise Cucurron Sicard, attempted to teach Victor French and
the basics of communication to prove that the development of one’s language and social abilities depends on one’s surroundings.

An illustration of Victor of Aveyron published in a German newspaper. The title says “The Wilding from Aveyron.”

Although Victor showed some signs of progress, he was aggressive, hyperactive, and uninterested in learning. This
eventually led researchers to the conclusion that he would never be able to adapt to any social convention, so they mostly gave up
on his future. He was left to roam the corridors of the National Institute of the Deaf and become a kind of localattraction.
Fortunately, he was adopted by a medical student named Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, who arranged for him to move into his
own home. Itard was the one who gave him the name “Victor”; up to that point, he was known only as the “Wolf Child.” Under
Itard’s close supervision, Victor managed to learn several phrases and accept some social conventions, but never became a fully
functional member of society. Still, he received proper care and led a peaceful life until 1828, when he died of pneumonia at an
estimated age of 40.
 A portrait of Jean Marc Gaspard Itard.

Although Itard failed in his efforts to educate Victor, he is praised for founding an oral education program for the deaf and
introducing new methods of pedagogy that include the use of behavior modification with severely impaired children
Valjak, D (2017), Victor of Aveyron: A feral child who supposedly lived in the French wilderness until he was 1, The Vintage News,
https://www.thevintagenews.com/2017/06/21/victor-of-aveyron-a-feral-child-who-supposedly-lived-in-the-french-
wilderness-until-he-was-12/
END OF ARTICLE
MEAD’S THEORY OF THE SELF
According to Mead, the self emerges from social interaction. This lies contradictory to the argument of biological
determinism “because it holds that the self is neither initially there at birth nor necessarily at the beginning of a social interaction,
but is constructed, and re-constructed in the process of social experience and activity” (Villafuerte, etal 2018). This means to say,
Mead contends that the self is not inborn and that the self is developed as one ages and accumulate more experiences.
In the perspective of Mead, Victor had not developed normally according to his age. He had not developed his “self”
because of his isolation from the world. It was also mentioned in the article because of Victor’s isolation, there was already a lack of
proper care, emotional stimulation, and education that hindered his social progress and delayed their mental development.
Three Stages of Development according to Mead
The self is learned during childhood which comes in three stages of development:

IMITATION

PLAY

TEAM GAMES

As our self gradually develops, we internalize the expectations of more and more people. Our ability to take the role of
others eventually extends to being able to take the role of “the group as a whole.” Existence of the community, therefore, comes
before individual consciousness.
Phases of Self according to Mead
For Mead, all human experience internal conversation. This conversation involves the I and me which he called the phases
of self.
 The “me” refer the organized set of attitudes and expectation of others which one assumes. It represents learned behaviors,
attitudes and expectations of others and society that arouse from the social interactions of the individual. It is the socialized aspect
of the individual. Because of this, the “me” is said to be the mechanism by which community exercises control over the conduct of
its individual members.
The “I” is the response to the “me” or the person’s individuality. It is the active, spontaneous, creative part of the self. It is
the part of you that’s acting being spontaneous and doing things on your own. Because of this the “I” is said to be the subject while
the “me” is the object. Object
Let’s try to relate it to grammar. As a basic rule: The subject is the person or thing doing something. The object is having
something done to it.(IELTS) In formulating sentences, we usually use the term “I” when we are the doer of the action and use “me”
when we are the receiver. We say I like you, to mean that “I” is the doer of the action like. We do not say me likes you. We say “You
like me”, to mean that “me” is the receiver of the action like. In the context of Mead, the “me” is the object? Object of what?
Receiver of what? The receiver of norms society, thus it is the me that adheres to the expectations of other people.
Let’s suppose that you would like to watch your favorite series in Netflix but you have other assessments due in the said
week. The “me” is that aspect of you that would tell you to read your lesson and answer the learning tasks given by your teacher.
These are the expectations of society from you given your role as a student. Your “I” is that aspect of you that will tell what you will
do.
Remember: “The action of the 'I' is revealed only in the action itself; specific prediction of the action of 'I' is not possible. The
individual is determined to respond but the specific character of the response is not fully determined. The individual's response are
conditioned but not determined by the situation in which he acts. (Sociology Guide)”

Cooley's Looking Glass Self

Cooley's Looking Glass Self
The concept of looking-glass self-states that part of how we see ourselves comes from our perception of how others see
us (Cooley, 1902). Charles Horton Cooley contends proposed that the self is developed as a result of perceptions of another people’s
opinion. “People are the way they are at least partly because of other people’s reactions to them and to what they do. They are
constantly picking up feedback and incorporating it into their sense of self (Corpuz, Estoque and Tabotabo (2019). For instance, if
parents praise a child for being diligent in terms of doing his or her chores, then the child might think that he is responsible.
It generally involves three process:

This implies that our view of our selves comes from the contemplation of personal qualities and impressions of how others
perceive us. This means that we are not what others think we are, it is what we believe others see us. REMEMBER:
 Development of the self does not depend on accurate evaluations.
 Although the self-concept begins in childhood, its development is an ongoing, lifelong process
o There are certain things we have to watch out for that are related to this concept.
Labeling Bias
The labeling bias occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that labeling (Fox & Stinnett,
1996). Labeling can be beneficial or detrimental.
A typical example of labelling bias is when a teacher perceives a certain class, say Class A, as a “bunch of troublemakers”.
When this happens, the teacher’s behaviour towards the students in that certain class changes and may be made to think
that any behavior (even those that are neutral) may be misinterpreted as a result of their misdemeanour. A likely scenario
can also be seen if a teacher will view one her classes, Class B, as a “model class”. Let’s imagine a situation: A student got
absent one day in both classes. The teacher might think that the one who got absent in Class A is uninterested with
schooling, not motivated and more likely wont be successful in life. The student in Class B might make the teacher think
that the child might not be feeling well or have some sort of a problem. As you can see from this example, the teacher’s
perception affected her attitude towards his or her student.
Because of labelling bias, people’s behavior or reaction towards us also change. This is called self-fulfilling prophecy. A self-fulfilling
prophecy is a belief that comes true because we are acting as if it is already true.
For example, a student might think that he will not be able to do well in an examination. Since he already has this
expectation, the student might not review since he might think that his efforts will all go to waste. When the examination
results were released, he found himself getting a failing score.
If we are repeatedly labelled and evaluated by others, then self-labeling may occur. Self-labeling happens when we adopt what
others’ labels explicitly into our self-concept. The effects of this self-labeling on our self-esteem appear to depend very much on the
nature of the labels. Labels used in relation to diagnosis of psychological disorders can be detrimental to people who then
internalize them. A particular study (Moses, 2009) found that adolescents who self-labelled according to diagnoses they had
received were found to have higher levels of self-stigma in their self-concepts along with higher levels of depression compared
with those who described their challenges in non-psychological terms.
For this part, I think it’s important to be guided by the words of Yehuda Berg:
 “Words are singularly the most powerful force available to humanity. We can choose to use this force constructively with words of
encouragement, or destructively using words of despair. Words have energy and power with the ability to help, to heal, to hinder,
to hurt, to harm, to humiliate and to humble.”
Social Comparison Theory
SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY
We constantly evaluate ourselves, and others, in domains like attractiveness, intelligence, skills and success through social
comparison. Social comparison theory is the idea that individuals determine their own social and personal worth based on how they
stack up against others (Psychology Today) These comparisons can be with people who we know and interact with or even those
whom we read about or watch on television or online. However, the most meaningful comparisons we make tend to be with those
we see as similar to ourselves (Festinger, 1954.) “Later research has shown that people who regularly compare themselves to others
may find motivation to improve, but may also experience feelings of deep dissatisfaction, guilt, or remorse, and engage in
destructive behaviors like lying or disordered eating (PsychologyToday)”

Here’s an article from Psychology Today to help us better understand Social Comparison:
THE BENEFITS OF COMPARISON:
When individuals compare themselves to others as a way of measuring their personal development or to
motivate themselves to improve and, in the process, develop a more positive self-image, comparisons can be beneficial. It
takes discipline, however, to avoid the pitfalls of negative comparison. In large part, how we react to comparisons depends
on who we compare ourselves to: When we just want to feel better about ourselves, we tend to engage in comparisons to
people worse off than we are, although this can become an unhealthy habit. When we want to improve, though, we may
compare ourselves to people roughly similar to us but higher achieving in one trait or another.
 How can comparison help you?
Social comparison can be highly beneficial when people use social networks to push themselves. In a study, friendly
competition was highly effective in pushing people to exercise more, as peers pushed each other to keep up and do more. In
such a "social ratchet effect," each person’s activity generates more activity among others. Social networks in which people
simply offered each other positive encouragement were far less helpful.
 Is it better to compare yourself to those doing better or worse than you are?
People generally engage in either upward or downward comparisons. In upward comparisons, we compare ourselves with
those we believe are better than us in some way; in downward comparisons, we do the opposite. Research, unsurprisingly,
finds that downward comparisons make us feel better about ourselves, but that there are dangers to each approach—
insecurity and jealousy, or overconfidence and arrogance.
 Can envy ever be a positive emotion?
Envy is usually an unpleasant feeling that can lead to brooding, resentment, or even violence. Some psychologists,
however, have suggested that people can experience “benign” envy, in which they use envious feelings as motivation to
improve themselves. Benign envy could lead someone, for example, to try to emulate the best qualities of a person who has
what they want.

THE DANGERS OF COMPARISON

Theodore Roosevelt called comparison “the thief of joy,” and he may have been right. Social comparison can
motivate people to improve, but it can also promote judgmental, biased, and overly competitive or superior attitudes. Most
people have the social skills and impulse control to keep their standards for social comparison to themselves, and not to act
on any envy or resentment spurred by comparison-making. But their true feelings may manifest in other ways.
 Why can comparisons make people feel bad?
Comparisons are likelier to make us feel bad when we make the error of only comparing ourselves to paragons of
certain traits. For example, many people believe they have a less active social life than others. But when making such
comparisons, people tend to compare themselves only to the most social people they know. Understanding this bias can
help us make more realistic and motivating comparisons.
 Is social media harmful to self-esteem?
Constantly checking social-media feeds full of images from parties, concerts, or other aspirational events can diminish
self-esteem and contribute to depression. But some studies have found that such risks primarily affect those high in the trait
of neuroticism, and others suggest that social-media use can reinforce self-esteem; for example, when people review their
own images of good times with friends.
 How can I stop comparing myself to others?
To be less vulnerable to painful comparisons, notice the people or events that prompt the behavior. Commit to being
deeply grateful for what’s good in your own life. And remember that the human propensity to want what others have is
such a waste of time, unless what you see and “covet” in another is something of deep worth, such as their generosity or
kindness.

Here’s a cartoon to end the lesson:

The ice cream and the popsicle are cool until they melt.
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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

What does it mean to be a Filipino?

What does it mean to be Filipino?

“In most dictionaries, the term “Filipino” is defines as belonging or relating to the Philippines, or to its people and culture. In the context of citizenship,
“Filipino” simply means membership in a nation-state. In the constitution a citizen is someone who legally resides in a country. Anthropologically, however, it
is different. To belong to a people is not necessarily implying a legal association to a country’s cherished values. To belong and relate to a culture means to
adopt, accept and treasure its entire way of life. Therefore, in order to be called Filipino, you have to belong to the Filipino people and adopt to their culture.
In this perspective, the self must be embedded in the culture”. (Corpuz, Estoque & Tabotabo, 2019)

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

Anthopology: An introduction

What is anthropology?

It is a study of all aspects of human condition. This includes human history, the present human condition and even the future possibilities. (Kottak,
2009) It explores the interconnectedness and interdependence of human cultural experiences in all places and age. (Havilland, et.al, 2014)

The key difference between the two social sciences is that sociology concentrates on society while anthropology focuses on culture.

In the perspective of anthropology, the self is both a biological and a cultural entity. The traditional anthropological understanding of the self is that the
self is an animal species which underwent the process of biological evolution and has shared characteristics with other living animals, the hominids, in
particular. Since the self has better development in terms of the brain and adaptation in the environment for survival, the self develops a culture resulting in
behavioural changes.

It is said that the self is a living animal but superior to other animals in the following factors:

Physical aspect – Humans are the only animal with a larger brain capacity making him/her a rational animal; the only animal that can stand straight
allowing him/her to have better mobility in doing things etc.
Social aspect – Humans uses language and symbol in dynamic, complicated yet systematic manner allowing him/her to communicate, and preserve
history, knowledge, culture etc; can operate with others in a systematic manner in larger cooperation and invests new things for survival

What is culture?

Cultures are those complex structures of knowledge, beliefs, arts, religion, morals, law, language, traditional practices, and all other aspects needed
by humans to function in a society. The way you dress, the way and the food you prepare, the things your value, the language you speak, the way we
celebrate Christmas, everything else around us and everything we do (and even avoid) is culture.

Material culture refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. These include homes, neighborhoods,
cities, schools, churches, synagogues, temples, mosques, offices, factories and plants, tools, means of production, goods and products, stores, and so forth.

Non-material culture refers to the nonphysical ideas that people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, language,
organizations, and institutions. For instance, the non-material cultural concept of religion consists of a set of ideas and beliefs about God, worship, morals,
and ethics. These beliefs, then, determine how the culture responds to its religious topics, issues, and events.

Characteristics of Culture

Culture is learned. It is not biological; we do not inherit it. Much of learning culture is unconscious. We learn culture from families, peers, institutions,
and media. The process of learning culture is known as enculturation. While all humans have basic biological needs such as food, sleep, and sex, the
way we fulfill those needs varies cross-culturally.

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Enculturation is the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. Unlike biological hereditary transmission, cultural transmission
is done through observation, use of language, adaption to environment, rituals, and formal and informal education.

Culture is shared. Because we share culture with other members of our group, we are able to act in socially appropriate ways as well as predict how
others will act. Despite the shared nature of culture, that doesn’t mean that culture is homogenous (the same). The multiple cultural worlds that exist in
any society are discussed in detail below.

Culture is based on symbols. A symbol is something that stands for something else. Symbols vary cross-culturally and are arbitrary. They only have
meaning when people in a culture agree on their use. Language, money and art are all symbols. Language is the most important symbolic component
of culture.

Culture is integrated. This is known as holism, or the various parts of a culture being interconnected. All aspects of a culture are related to one
another and to truly understand a culture, one must learn about all of its parts, not only a few.

Culture is dynamic. This simply means that cultures interact and change. Because most cultures are in contact with other cultures, they exchange
ideas and symbols. All cultures change, otherwise, they would have problems adapting to changing environments. And because cultures are
integrated, if one component in the system changes, it is likely that the entire system must adjust.

What is identity?

Identity refers to “who a person is” or the qualities and traits an individual that make him or her different from others. We can distinguish a person
according to their geographical context or based on where they come from. It can be a membership in a particular group or institution (such as being a
Louisian). It can also refer to how one person sees and expresses himself

Cultural identity refers to the identity or feeling of belongings to a certain cultural group. It is an individual’s perception about himself or herself
anchored on race, gender, nationality, religion, ethnicity and language that eventually influences his behavior. One may identify himself or herself as Filipino
because he or she embodies Filipino cultural ways and traditions to which he or she has been exposed while growing up. While being a Filipino, one may
also identify as a Catholic because it is his or her religious background. He or she may likewise identify himself or herself as Ybanag. The cultural categories
that shape one’s overall cultural identity prove that one’s cultural identity is multidimensional.

How do you identify yourself in terms of your own culture?

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Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

Self-Awareness
In Anthropology, self-awareness is that which permits one to assume responsibility for one’s own conduct, to learn how to react to others,

and to assum e a variety of roles (Haviland, 2003). Self-awareness allows us to distinguish ourselves from others. It
has been observed that the child starts to conceptualize self-awareness at age two. However, studies also show that self-awareness is conceptualize much
earlier by children sleeping with parent’s and are exposed to variety of stimuli like touch and the like. Stimulation is maximized when the child is in close
contact with the mother or carer and all the other members of the family. This develops the neural circuitry or hard wiring of the brain faster than with children
with less stimulation. This is particularly advantageous for us Filipinos because most of the time our cultural practice is to sleep with our parents until at least
school age.

Following the faster process of enculturation and self-awareness is the importance of attachment of positive values to one’s self. The child must be
able to get the culturally correct values necessary for adult life. What the child observes from what the adults are doing or thinking will more likely be adapted
and imitated by the child, however, he will later develop his own identity.

The identity is further intensified by a practice common to all cultures – the naming ritual. Naming individualizes a person. It gives a person his/her
own unique traits, experience, personality and identity. The person’s name is also a symbol of one’s status in the c ommunity that can either give the person
honor or stigma. This is fairly demonstrated among families of politicians and famous businessmen. It is important to remember however, that a person’s
name is at the same time a project in progress –an identity you wish to establish in the community. For example, you are now at the process of adding the
titles like CPA, RN, Engr, Atty, Ar, LPT, RPsy, or Honorable and many others, who knows what the future holds?

Do you know why you were given the name you currently have right now? If not, you can ask your parents about it! It might reveal some
expectations they have for you as their child.

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Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

The Self and Culture (According to Mauss)

According to Mauss, every self has two faces: personne and moi.

MOI refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body and his basic identity. Moi is a person’s basic identity, his biological givenness. It is stable and
static.
PERSONNE refers to what to what is means to live in a particular institution, family, religion, nationality and how to behave. It is culturally specific. This
refers to certain behaviors that are dependent on the circumstances and contexts.

The self (especially the personne) morphs according to different circumstances and contexts. For example, Rico, a certain Filipino who is currently living in the Philippines,
has the tendency to be disobedient to local policies. He would usually spit anywhere he likes or would even cross highways even if the pedestrian signals are still on red
(moi). Then, Rico went to Singapore to work. It was noticeable that while he was there, Rico was no longer doing the behaviors he usually did in the Philippines. He was
not spitting on the streets and he was even more compliant and obedient to traffic rules there (personne)

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

The Self and the Behavioral Environment

Behavioral environment model emphasizes the importance of perception in human geography, the significance of subjective experience and the potential of
man as an active agent in the environment. This suggests that our worldview towards the different orientations affects our values and therefore our behaviour.

Object orientation positions the self in relation to the surroundings. The self should be able to act responsively to the cultural objects around.
T’boli, an indigenous group in South Cotabato, respects the trees, lakes, falls and animals in the forests.

Spatial orientation provides the self with personal space in relation to other people or things.
Individualistic society where independence is of utmost importance, personal space is emphasized.

Temporal orientation endows the self with sense of time.

In Filipino philosophy, time is spherical where life events are repeated but may not necessarily be the same (this will be elaborated
further in the next module)

Normative orientation provides the self with the grasp of accepted norms in the community.
Being on time is a generally accepted norm in the society. In communities where punctuality is considered a value, being on time is
already a charitable gesture.

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Anthropological Perspectives of the Self

Cultural Degradation
Cultural degradation or more horribly cultural genocide means the loss of a particular culture due to assimilation or loss of interest. Assimilation
happens when a dominant culture overshadows an inferior culture. For instance, some culture of the Tagalogs or even those coming from Urban Manila is
largely influencing the culture of the Ybanags. You might notice that many children are no longer speaking their own dialect, or performing other religious and
celebratory rituals commonly performed by the folks.

In a larger scale, culture is also lost through violent, genocide, inability to respect traditions, religions, beliefs and the cultural community’s sense of
pride, which are largely the result of globalization. For many decades, the Moros of Mindanao, for example are continuously striving for the recognition of
their cultural identity and self-realization. However, history tells us that both the Moros and the dominant culture living in Mindanao are constantly victimized
by the unending violence perpetrated by various groups, In the end many of the cultural landmarks, which are part of the identity of the people are either
prejudiced or lost forever.(Villafuerte, 2018)

Another classic example is the Bikini Atoll.

In the late 1940s the US government wanted the island for use as a nuclear test site and relocated the island’s population. The government made the
decision, the move was to a totally new environment, it occurred in a very short period of time, and the Bikinians had no choice in the immediate or
subsequent attempts to ameliorate the ensuing problems.

The result was a substantial loss of the original culture, serious demoralization among the people, and a great deal of stress with which individuals
continue to cope with varying success.

Do you think some forms of cultural degradation is seen nowadays?

Ending quotation:

A nation's culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people.
Mahatma Gandhi

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Eastern and Western Thoughts

Introduction to the Western and Eastern Orientations

Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the “self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is
the Eastern vs. Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe and Northern America.

Besides a general observation of cultural/artistic/principal differences showing the distinction between western and eastern concepts of ‘self’, in this lesson, we will
look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly influenced the mindset of each nation or culture.

Are we all different and independent, or are all people part of one whole?

THE NATURE OF THE SELF

Ashley has been watching the news and the way everyone is at each other's throats, and though it's painful and sad to watch, she also thinks it's inevitable. After all,
people are all independent and very different from one another.

Her friend Tan isn't so sure though. He believes that everyone is connected to each other and to the world. To Tan, we are all one, so no one should be fighting.

Ashley and Tan are thinking about the nature of the self. When philosophers talk about the nature of the self, what they are really asking is:

In Western philosophy, people tend to think like Ashley people are separate and unique from each other. What one person does or experiences is completely
independent of other people and the world at large. In the western understanding of the self there is a heavy emphasis on your recognition that you are a separate entity
that even you belong to a certain group of people what is important for them is for you to realize that you have your own identity. That you have the capacity to make
choices hence what is important is for you to become a unique person.

However, in Eastern philosophy, the self is often treated as an illusion. That is, the idea that people are separate entities from each other and the world is not considered
a reality in Eastern thought.

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Eastern and Western Thoughts

The Individualistic and Collectivistic Self

There are many differences between individualistic and collective cultures. In general, individualistic cultures emphasize individual actions. In this culture, people are
encouraged to prioritize their own needs and their independence over the group’s needs. In collective cultures, people are encouraged to prioritize the needs and harmony
of the group over their own success. These core differences in values impact the ways these cultures communicate, celebrate, and cultivate the economy.

WESTERN

The concept of the psyche is a western' model of the soul. Western traditions are always preoccupied by the duality of the body and soul.

Plato started with the idea that the soul inhabited the world of ideas, while the body descended to the world of the sensible. The ideal self is there up
above the heavens while the bodily self, or the soul imprisoned in a finite material body, by which we know today is only thrown into the oblivion of
remembering what the soul used to know while still living in the world of ideas.

Even Aristotle did not solve this problem of duality. He proposed the hylemorphic theory, meaning that the human person is composed of matter or the
body and form or the soul. Matter is changeable while the form remains. This means that the body will grow and eventually die and decompose and will be
transformed into something else. The form however remains unchanged. But unlike Plato, Aristotle asserted that the body is equally important as the soul,
because the former will give the latter the knowledge it ought to have through senses.

This is very much similar to the duality of body and soul of Descartes. The body is the one gathering information through the senses, although he never
always trusted the information coming from the senses. It is the reason that processes all information and makes sense with experiences of the body. In
an attempt to solve the issue of duality, Descartes proposed that the body and the soul fused in one very important part of the brain – the pineal gland.

Still, the western concept of the self is very much anchored on the individuality of the psyche. The individual self is always in a struggle to reconcile the
connection between the ideal self or perfect soul and the limited self or sinful body. This dichotomy drives us in the understanding of the self as lifetime toil
for self-perfection. What is important in this concept of the self is the development of the self from conception to death.

This will normally be in order to correspond with some determined ideal, depending on the social and historical conditions under which a person lives. Once
an individual has reached a sufficiently high level of consciousness and self-knowledge, he or she has the capacity both for self-analysis and observation,
and for understanding the actions of others. Motivated by the wish for acceptance and authority in a peer group, an individual develops personal qualities by
self-perfecting.

In other words, from the moment of conception, the self is molded and prepared to live a good and happy life.

A daughter, for example will be provided with the best possible upbringing by the parents. She will be sent to the best school in town in view of
bestowing on her the necessary knowledge and skills to be independent and successful professional in adult years. She is expected to compete with
other professionals in her field and become the best in her line of work. She will eventually find a partner and raise children the way she was raised.
This is such an example of an ideal self that manifests the perfection of the soul.

When, on the contrary, the self did not have the opportunity to be raised, and to grow, and to die a good and happy life, the self becomes a waste as it did
not live the ideals of the soul. The lone purpose of the self, therefore is:

To live according to the ideals of the soul.

The Greeks call this aréte -the ultimate goodness, perfection, excellence. All of life’s directions, in as much as the western individualistic self is concerned,
are geared towards self-perfection.

EASTERN

Although the self in the eastern perspective also wants to attain perfection in meditation and enlightenment, there has never been an issue of dualism.
Easterners do not have the notion of the separation of the body and soul.

It is always one self.

A. The Atman - An Indian philosophy which is considered to be the seat of consciousness.

The atman may have different levels of consciousness but there is always one self. Even death is considered to be just another level of consciousness
but the atman continues to exist because it is not dependent on the body. This in fact is also the concept of the non-self in Buddhism. In this concept the self
is considered as nothing but an evolution and transformation of inner consciousness.

B. The Confucian – A philosophy from China that emphasized the relational self and the social understanding of the self.

Scholars read Confucius’ philosophy in two ways.

1. The ideal moral self is always able to forego individual interest in view of prioritizing the social interest.

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In a way, the self is the ideal of a selfless person who is willing to forget about his self-interest in favor of the interest of the community. In this conception, there
is still the individual self and the self is mutually exclusive as the social self. However, the individual self is subsumed in the interest of the social self.

2. The individual self and the social self are not mutually exclusive but are metaphysically and profoundly related.

The individual character of the ideal self cannot be separated from the social character of the self. It means that the self is constructively
connected with the pursuit of the social self.

Let us take as an example many family dynamics in which, when in dire poverty one or the other sibling will be asked to stop going to school so
that the family will be able to send the rest of the children to school to continue with their education. Here, the self is willing to sacrifice and may
forget to assert self-interest in order to pursue the resolve of the whole family. The same self-sacrifice may be manifested in groups, communities
and nation.

Features of Individualism Features of Collectivism

 “I” identity

 Promotes individual goals, initiative and  Each person is encouraged to be an

achievement. active player in society, to do what is best
for society as a whole rather than in
 Individual rights are seen as being the themselves.
most important. Rules attempt to ensure
self-importance and individualism.  The rights of families, communities, and
the collective supersede those of the:
 Independence is valued; there is much individual
less of a drive to help other citizens or
communities than' in collectivism.  Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and
selflessness.
 Relying or being dependent on others is
frequently seen as shameful.  Working with others and cooperating is the
norm; everyone supports each other.
 People are encouraged to do things on
their own; to rely on themselves people  as a community, family or nation more
strive for their own successes than as an individual

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Eastern and Western Thoughts

The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought

Social construction is a shared assumption or perception of the people in society. The western social construct of the self can be characterized in three
ways.

1. Individualistic self - At a very young age, the child is already taught to pursue what is best for self. Thus, later in adult life, the measure of a
successful life is when the self is able to fulfil the life-goals set for and by the self.

The individualistic self is always conceived as the autonomous bounded entity. For one to be autonomous, one must be able to show independence.

2. Self-sufficiency - This construct presumes that a successful self must be able to supply one’s needs without external assistance.

Being self-sufficient also implies confidence in one’s capacity to provide what the self needs from one’s own resources and authority. Therefore, it is
important for the self to establish one’s power and accumulate the needed knowledge and resources so that one will be able to provide one’s needs.

3. The self being rational - In the western practice, there is no time for the self to be weak and emotional. The self must not waste resources on
meditation and other metaphysical cognitions but to be constantly rational and reasonable.

The self masters the causal relationships of things. Everything must be explained by logic and reason. Phenomenon outside the logical realm are simply
discredited and rejected. This explains the western logical positivist movement. It contends that what is rational and reasonable are only those which can
be logically viable. The successful self therefore, is grounded on one’s investment on reason and logical thinking.

It also necessarily follows that. when the self adapts the rational-logical conception of things, one must be scientific. The self marvels at the safety measures
of scientific procedures. Scientific researches ascertain the cause and effect relationship of things and phenomena. Safety is derived from the mastery of the
phenomena concerning the self.

This brings about the ideals of self-efficacy in which everything can be explained by science, and everything can be provided for by science. The successful
self embraces the scientific conception of things that affect one’s growth, psycho-physical development, intellectual capacity, interaction with others and
involvement in societal institutions and infrastructures.

Self-Efficacy is a person’s belief in their ability to succeed in a particular situation. Psychologist Albert Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of
how people think, behave, and feel.

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Eastern and Western Thoughts

The Self as Embedded in Relationships and Through Spiritual Development in Confucian Thought
Eastern social infrastructures are mostly seen as contrary to the western individualistic construct. The eastern social construct is primarily viewed as
collectivistic and is always grounded on nature. There were many eastern traditions that flourished in the history of thought that were firmly based on how the
self relates to others, to the Divine Being and to nature.

Confucius or Kung Fu Zi ascertained the ancient Chinese civilization by establishing social order. The society will be led by wise leaders who guaranteed
peace, prosperity and harmony. Here in the Confucian system we can immediately notice the primacy of the society over the individual person. In fact,
Confucius believed that the threat to social order is only caused by the unchecked selfish desires of individuals.

The self therefore in the Confucian system is:

A person within the society who exhibits refinement and compassion.

Junzi - It is the new self formed in the right education under the virtuous teacher as the role model.

Central in the educational formation of junzi are humanistic learning, refined personal manners and the capacity to govern the community wisely and with
compassion. In principle, the new self of junzi the sage king brings to life the virtues of the ancestors to the new order of society. The self therefore is the
transmitter of the ancient virtues to the new world.

Li – It is a refined manner of spiritual rituals and sacrifices, and protocols in honoring the ancestors.

To carry out the transmission, one must have the correct procedures and protocol, In Chinese philosophy, religious rituals are of great importance. The word
li originally means sacrifice. Li is both the restraining and the refinement of the self. The virtuous self must be able to practice the correct customary
procedures and protocols governing all of life.

Ren – It is the character of the self that sincerely shows compassion for others.

The self must embody human-heartedness by prioritizing the self-interest of others. The sage king - jenzi - is characterized by his practice of ren in putting
others first before the self.

Although Confucius was not given the opportunity to become the leader of China, his principles of jenzi, li and ren became influential all throughout China
even unto many other modern civilizations of the world.

To conclude, we commonly hear the dichotomy between the east and the west. The eastern traditions are known for their communal and spiritual
constructs. On the other hand, the western traditions developed a construct of being individualistic, self-reliant, rational and scientific. In this
chapter we were able to distinguish between the individualistic and collective self. We clarified the many western constructs of the self vis-a-vis
the relational and spiritual construct of the east.

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Psychological Perspective of the Self

Introduction to the Psychological Perspective

We may only have one physical body but at times, it may feel like having several selves all at once. In our own little corner, this might not be bothersome. But, to be
asked in public “Who are you?” could be stressful. This question seems to force us to come up with an interesting answer that we might begin to feel unsatisfied with right
after saying it.

If a picture, still and stagnant, paints a thousand words what more a moving living, complex, dynamic, breathing human being? We may be able to figure out who
we are to a certain aspects but no answer might be enough to really articulate who we really are. Questioning who we are and engaging in self-reflection to figure out and
understand why we behave in a certain way is normal and is actually beneficial in increasing self-awareness.

Most of the time, we are too hard on ourselves because of the many expectations we have. We always want to be stable, in control and pleasing to others. As
mentioned by Weiten (2014), “possible selves are developed from past experiences, current behavior and future expectations.

Who we are, though not easily changed, might be likened to liquid, able to take many forms, depending on the factors and context affecting it.

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Psychological Perspective of the Self

Self-Concept
SELF/SELF-CONCEPT

According to Carl Rogers, the self or our self-concept “is an organized, consistent of perceptions of and beliefs about oneself”. These perceptions and beliefs that
comprise our self-concepts are called self-schemas. Self-schemas are formed by numerous factors that may be aware or unaware of, some of which are: (1) past
experiences, (2) personality traits, (3) abilities, (4) physical features, (5) values, (6) goals, (7) social roles, (8) own observations and (9) feedback from others.

Real and Ideal Self-Concepts

CARL ROGERS

“Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to self-actualize - i.e., to fulfill one's potential and achieve the
highest level of 'human-beingness' we can. Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its
environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough. (McLeod, 2014)”

Real self – includes all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness by the individual. It is the part of
ourselves where we feel, think, look and act involving our self-image.
Ideal self – revolves around ambitions in life and is dynamic, the idealized image that we have developed over time (what we admire in others,
what our society promotes, what we think in our best interest)

Who is your ideal and real self?

Our notion of both selves are results of our self-schemas. Our ideal self is essential in guiding and motivating us to behave in a way that would
lead us to the best version of who we want to be – a guide to the real self to continue improving.

How aligned is you ideal self from your real self?

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INCONGRUENT CONGRUENT

The self-image is different to the ideal self. The self-image is similar to the ideal self.
There is only a little overlap There is only more overlap
Here self-actualization will be difficult The person can self-actualise

When we feel good about ourselves, it is said that there is congruence or alignment or there is a small gap between our real and ideal self. This
gives us confidence, satisfaction, and a sense of self-actualization or fulfilment leading to a high self-esteem.

However, when we are disappointed or frustrated about ourselves, it is said that there is incongruence or misalignment or disparity or a huge
gap between our real and ideal self. This results to us being distressed, anxious, leading to a low self-esteem or self-worth and be defensive in our
actions. In cases where in the gap between the real and ideal self is immense, this may cause instability to one’s psychological well-being.

Summary: If the way that I am (real self) is aligned with the way that I want to be (ideal self), then I will feel a sense of mental well-being or
peace of mind. If the way that I am is not aligned with hot I want to be, the incongruence, or lack of alignment, will result in mental distress or anxiety.
The greater the level of incongruence between the ideal self and the real self, the greater the resulting distress.

If the level of incongruence is too much to handle, causing a person’s self-worth to be questionable, it is best to seek help through counselling or
seeking advice from people who can help.

Experiencing incongruence may happen from time to time, most especially in cases or contexts that are new or extreme. In circumstances like
these, we need to reflect, evaluate our behaviour, and be reminded of our ideal self to put us back on track. We have to learn to separate behaviors
from the totality of one’s being. We may have behaved badly but it does not mean that we are automatically a bad person. Changing our way of
thing may take a bit of getting used to since most of us may have been exposed to people who might be given us negative labels such as “bad, stupid,
weak, fat, ugly etc.” Negative labels could come from a single failure or blunder. Sadly, a single unintentional mistake is used to judge a person
holistically. We might have been victim of this or we might also be guilty of doing this to other people.

Whether we feel it or not, we have to understand and accept that we are very capable to help ourselves and attain the ideal self we intend to
become. Ideal does not always have to mean perfect. Life may be imperfect but we can work with that and use it to our advantage. We need to decide
and choose to stop comparing ourselves with other people especially to those we see on social media.

The curious paradox is that when I accept myself just as I am, then I can change.
~Carl Rogers

A similar concept

KAREN HORNEY believed that everyone experiences basic anxiety through which we experience conflict and strive to cope and employ tension
reduction approaches.

Because people feel inferior, they develop an idealized self-image – an imaginary picture of the self as the possessor of unlimited powers and
superlative qualities. The actual self – the person one is in everyday life – is often despised because it fails to fulfil the requirement of the idealized
image. Underlying both the idealized and actual self is the real self, which is revealed only as a person begins to shed the various techniques
developed to deal with basic anxiety and to find ways of resolving conflicts.

Multiple versus Unified Selves

KENNETH GERGEN, in the view of postmodern psychology contends that man has an identity that shifts and morphs in different social situations and
in response to different stimuli. Having a flexible sense of self in different context is more socially adaptable than force oneself to stick to one concept.

Multiple selves are the capacities we carry within us from multiple relationships. These are not ‘discovered’ but ’created’ in our relationships with our
people

Unified selves, as pointed out in Traditional psychology, emphasizes that well-being comes when our personality dynamics are congruent, cohesive
and consistent.

True versus False Selves

DONALD WINNICOTT believes that a person is in his true self if he has a sense of integrity and of connected wholeness. When the person has to
comply with external rules, such as being polite or otherwise following social codes, then a false self is used.

Healthy false self is functional both for the person and for society then it is considered healthy.

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Unhealthy false self fits in but through a feeling of forced compliance rather than loving adaptation.

False selves can lead towards narcissistic personality (Kohut, 1971)

To supplement the topic on True or False Selves, here is a video from SchoolofLife:

THE SCORPION AND THE OLD MAN

by: Author Unknown, Source Unknown

There was this old man who saw a scorpion floundering around in the water.

He decided to save it by stretching out his finger, but the scorpion stung him.

The man still tried to get the scorpion out of the water, but the scorpion stung him again.

A man nearby told him to stop saving the scorpion that kept stinging him.

But the man said: "It is the nature of the scorpion to sting. It is my nature to love.

Why should I give up my nature to love just because it is the nature of the scorpion to sting?"

Lesson:

Don't give up loving.

Don't give up your goodness.

Even if people around you sting.

Global versus Differentiated Needs

Self-esteem refers to a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth

Global Self-esteem (a.k.a Trait self-esteem) is a personality variable that represents the way people generally feel about themselves. It is
relatively enduring across time and situations.
State Self-esteem (a.k.a Feelings of self-worth) refers to temporary feelings or momentary emotional reactions to positive and negative events
when we feel good or bad about ourselves during certain situations or experiences.
Domain Specific Self-esteem (a.k.a Self evaluations) is focused on how people evaluate their various abilities and attributes.

SELF-ESTEEM shall be discussed further in the topic: Physical Self

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Physical Self

Introduction to the Physical Self

INTRODUCTION: UNPACKING THE SELF

In the previous modules, we tried explore how the self is viewed in various perspectives. We explained how philosophy, psychology, sociology and
anthropology explains the nature of human persons and their identity. In the following modules, we will be discussing various aspects of the self. We will
be discussing the physical, sexual, material, digital, spiritual and other various aspects of the self. For this module, we will discuss the Physical Self.
This will be good for two weeks.

INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICAL SELF

Our physical self is mostly represented by our face. It gives other people a first impression about who we are and what we are. How we look give initial clues
about our attitudes and the cosmetics put onto our faces may give hints about our economic status in life. It is undeniable to most of us that we give too much
attention to our faces than any other part of our body from the time we wake up to the moment before we sleep. Our face is the primary part of our body that we
protect in times of danger. We do not want any scars inflicted on any part of our face and admittedly, many of us are willing to spend money to make it pleasing to
other people. We maintain a face value because we consider our face as our initial asset. Before other people can discover our true attitude and capabilities, they first
rely on what they can physically see. The way we take care of ourselves, especially our faces, represents the kind of personality we have. It is no wonder that people
spend significant amounts of money just to make themselves beautiful,

In this module, you are going to learn about how your physical self play a role in defining who you are. This will also help you learn about the
physical self from various sources of information. We will talk about the physical self in a way that we will see how our perception of our body affects
how we think of ourselves.

Now let’s begin by how taking a look at the different conceptualizations of the physical self:

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Physical Self

The Self as Impacted by the Body

Through the years, the concept of physical self has gained a considerable attention in the fields of Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology,
including religious and biological or health studies. These disciplines agree on the premise that the physical self is an important component in the study
of the person's self and identity.

Sanjay Singh, the physical self refers to the body, a marvelous container and complex, finely timed machine with which we interface with our
environment and fellow beings. The Physical Self is the concrete dimension, the tangible aspect of a person that can be directly observed and
examined.

As with William James “The self is the sum total of all that man call his, which includes his body, family and reputation, also his clothes and his
house….”

Such body, family, clothes, and the like are also described by Russell W. Belk as part of our Extended Self. But what do we mean by physical
self? The concrete or tangible aspect or dimension of the person which is primarily observed and examined through the body is known as the
physical self.

James considered body as the initial source of sensation and necessary for the origin and maintenance of personality. However, James
considered body as subservient to the mind e.g., mental concentration can be so tightly focused… as not only to banish ordinary sensations, but even
the severest pain. (James, 1890, Vol. 1, p.49). A simple example could be the numerous reports of soldiers in the battle or a boxer in the ring who
suffer severe wounds but were not notice of them until the intensity of the fighting abates. For James, the body is an expressive tool of indwelling
consciousness and good physical health. It is an element of spiritual hygiene of supreme significance (James, 1899. p. 103).

Sigmund Freud's construction of self and personality makes the physical body the core of human experience. Freud was of the view that the
ego is first and foremost a body ego. However, in spite of Freud's recognition of the centrality of body, his own writings on therapy rarely discussed it.

Erikson, on the other hand, mentioned that experience is anchored in the ground-plan of body. According to him the role of bodily organs is
especially important in early developmental stages of a person's life. Later in life, the development of physical as well as intellectual skills help
determine whether an individual will achieve a sense of competency and ability to choose demanding roles in a complex society.

For example, healthy children derive a sense of competence as their bodies become larger, stronger, faster, and more capable of learning
complex skills. However, as a stage theorist Erikson is aware of the constant interaction of the body, psychological processes and social forces. He
acknowledges the classical Freudian view of fundamental biological drives but insists that these drives are socially modifiable.

Furthermore, Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945) placed the body at the center of human existence, as a way of experiencing the world. Such ideas
make clear to us the fact that the body is the way through which we make sense of the world and our environment. We experience life through our
bodies and senses (sight, smell, touch, etc.), allowing us to interpret the world around us. However, the body is not merely an object in the world but
we are also our bodies in that the body is the vehicle for our expression in the world. The body is the sight for the articulation of all our identifications
of gender, class, sexuality, race, ethnicity and religion.

The emergence of "body culture".

From the late 1970s to 1980s, Humanities and Sociology developed a new and broader interest in the body. Sociologists, historians, philosophers,
and anthropologists, including scholars from sport studies and medical studies spoke about this interest on the body which was then called then called
"body culure". The sociologists, Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens, agree in saying that the body is the only fix-point of “self- identity”.

Studies also show that one of the visible and deeper changes in relation to the modern body concerns the dress reform and the appearance of the naked body. The
change from noble pale skin to suntanned skin as a "sportive" distinction was not only linked to sport, but had a strong impact on society as a whole. The change of
appreciated body color reversed the social-bodily distinctions between people and classes, and nudism became a radical expression of this body-cultural change

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Physical Self

The Impact of Culture on Body Image and Self-esteem: The Importance of Beauty
Do you consider yourself beautiful?

What is your concept of beauty?

What is the society's concept of beauty?

Do these perceptions really matter?

Well dressed, elegant, good-looking, attractive! These are the words we usually associate with beauty. As Kenny and Nichols describe, they are the
determining factors shaping beauty. "Attractive children, and adults are treated more favorably by others in the society.

Some people as you would agree are lucky to possess features that stick to the standardized ideals of beauty though nature bestows less-than-
perfect physical attributes upon others such as slightly misshapen noses, protuberant chins, breasts that appear too large or too small. For the most
part, people have learned to live with these inadequacies. But in some cases, there are people who are dissatisfied with their physical characteristics
that they seek to alter them through surgical means. The process appears trouble-free, yet there are many unseen pitfalls.

THE MALE IDEAL “Adonis” body built”

"muscular wash-board abs, powerful legs, chiseled features.

6-pack or ripped abs shoved in the face of men via famous sportsmen and male fitness models, which for many is impossible to achieve
without illegal steroids.”

THE FEMALE IDEAL

"coca-cola contoured figure”

Life today sees image upon image of fashionably clad women, perfect skin, tiny waists, ample breasts, fashionably protruding behinds (of
Kardashian and Beyonce fame) all with a weight of no greater than 59kg.

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Needless to say, this pursuit of perfection puts a huge strain on both genders but “females in particular receive a massive amount of societal
pressure to conform to conventional beauty standards.”

People do set unrealistic images of beauty, genetically impossible for many of us to emulate. Yet we are told that these unattainable bodies are
normal, desirable, and achievable. When we don't measure up to this satisfaction, we develop a strong sense of dissatisfaction.

What do we exactly mean by body image?

Now, let’s talk about "body image" and "identity". Popular interest in body image issues has grown dramatically in recent years, due to an
emphasis on individual limitless capacities of modern medicine.

Society shapes us in many ways, possibly more than we realize from our interactions to our personal development through to other's perception
of our bodies as a reflection of self-worth. We are social beings. Genetically, we rely on one another for the survival of humanity. That primal connection
makes our interactions physiologically and psychologically important. So it is not surprising that how society perceives our bodies.

Body image is both internal (personal) and external (society)

The inner beauty which refers to the inner qualities of the person and the external beauty which refers to the physical characteristics of the
person. External beauty focuses on the physical features of the body commonly defined as "a combination of qualities, which includes shape, color, or
form that pleases the aesthetic senses, especially the sight."

Body image is the perception that a person has of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings that result from that perception. These
feelings can be positive, negative or both, and are influenced by individual and environmental factors. (Psych alive by Collin Mc Shirley)

Body image lies at the heart of adolescence. In this concept, we think of how attractive our body is. It is the mental representation of one's own
body, or somebody’s own impression of how his or her body looks which is a very important aspect of identity.

This includes:

How we perceive our bodies visually

How we feel about our physical appearance
How we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies
Our sense of how other people view our bodies

Body image is determined by 4 factors:

1. How you SEE your body is your perceptual body image. This is not always a correct
representation of how you actually look. For example, a person may perceive themselves as
overweight when they are actually underweight.

2. The way you FEEL about your body is your affective body image. This relates to the amount of
satisfaction or dissatisfaction you feel about your shape, weight, and individual body parts.

3. The way you THINK about your body is your cognitive body image. This can lead to
preoccupation with body shape and weight.

4. BEHAVIORS in which you engage as a result of your body image encompass your behavioral
body image. When a person is dissatisfied with the way he/she looks, they may isolate
themselves because they feel bad about their appearance.

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Now that you have your “body image cheat sheet,” does it give you a better understanding of how you perceive your own body and thoughts? How does
the four aspects resonate with you?

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How we look at our bodies has possibly never held as much societal importance or reflected so significantly on our perceived self-worth. Each
one, male or female, strives to acquire the body of his/her dream. We are in a culture in which beauty is judged by numbers. As commonly observed,
attraction to another person’s body increases if that body is symmetrical and in proportionate, we are more likely to notice it and find it
beautiful. We even perceive proportional bodies to be healthier.

Take a minute to ponder the following questions.

This is not part of the learning task

Look at yourself in front of a mirror and answer the following questions:

1. Which part of your body are you most proud of?

2. Which part of your body are you not happy about? Why?

3. What is your ideal body? Describe the body you want to have.

4. Do you really need another body to be happy? Why? Why not?

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The promise of an “aesthetic capital”

The presence of aesthetically based cultural goods and their ever- increasing influence in modern society poses a new conceptual opportunity to
Sociology. A new term “aesthetic capital”, is introduced. Such concept covers the privileges and wealth people receive from aesthetic traits, such as
their face, hair, body, clothes, grooming habits and other markers of beauty.

For Samantha Lovascio, visually appealing traits greatly impact our lives, in matters of modest importance (friend selection) to great importance (friend
selection) (e.g. getting a job career mobility). Thus, the promise of an aesthetic capital concept lies in enabling Sociology to better understand inequality
and the socially based forms of wealth available to modern society. It seems such attraction to “body image” and “aesthetic capital” is increasingly
becoming today's preoccupation, especially of young people as it gradually becomes the basis upon which one's identity and self-esteem are built.

ADDITIONAL READ:

AESTHETIC CAPITAL

Authored by: Sylvia Holla , Giselinde Kuipers

ROUTLEDGE INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF THE SOCIOLOGY OF ART AND CULTURE

People are also inclined to associate ‘good looks’ with other positive qualities, from moral goodness to economic success.

Social psychologists call this the ‘halo effect’: the assumption that persons with visible desirable traits also have other, maybe less visible, positive
qualities (Nisbett and Wilson 1977; Kaplan 1978). In present-day societies, research has shown that people who are deemed more attractive tend to
have higher wages, more durable relationships, higher grades and better assessments (Andreoni and Petrie 2008). Thus, physical attractiveness
comes with many rewards, also in fields that at first glance have nothing to do with physical appearance.

Beauty comes with benefits. There are the obvious perks, such as sexual attractiveness and a desire on the part of others to seek out the
company of good-looking people.

The Role of Culture in our Understanding of "Body Image" and "Self-esteem"

What is culture?

It is commonly defined as the shared patterns of thoughts, beliefs, behaviors, and habits in both material and symbolic realms.

"Culture includes language, technology, economic, political and educational systems, religious and aesthetic patterns, social structures and so on.
It is widely recognized by social scientists that the self is shaped, in part, through interaction with groups."(Harry Triandis).

Through culture, society shapes us in many ways. As mentioned earlier, body image is both internal (personal) and external (society). These
include how we perceive our bodies visually, how we feel about our physical appearance, how we think and talk to ourselves about our bodies, and our
sense of how other people view our bodies.

What do you think are characteristics that Filipinos find to be attractive? Are they similar with other the American’s perception of beauty?

Try to watch this video to see the various beauty standards different cultures hold.

As/Is (2014), Beauty Standards Around The World,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RT9FmDBrewA

We are all body-builders

“Drawing on contemporary culture, our bodies are not only biological but also cultural in that we say, we all shape and manipulate our bodies. We
are all body-builders as we build and style our bodies on a daily basis. We decide how to dress and style our bodies, we decide how much hair we want
on our bodies, and we shave, wax, etc. We manipulate our bodies' weight through diet and exercise and we even modify our bodies to extreme levels
and introduce mechanical agents into our bodies merging flesh and technology. The body is enthralled to cultural regimes, telling us how we should look
- especially how we should dress and what our bodies weight (fat levels) should be".

What happens when your body doesn’t look like how it's supposed to look like, or feel how it's supposed to feel, or do what it’s supposed to do?

Who or what defines the ideals behind these expectations?

How can we challenge them and live more peacefully in our bodies?

De Mello (2014). In the ‘Encyclopedia of Body Adornment', De Mello explores these questions as she says:

All cultures everywhere have attempted to change their body in an attempt to meet their cultural standards of beauty, as well as their religious. In
addition, people modify and adorn their bodies as part of the complex or process of creating and recreating their personal and social identities.

Body adornment refers to the practice of physically enhancing the body by styling and decorating the hair, painting and embellishing the fingernails,
wearing makeup, painting the body, wearing jewelry, and the use of clothing Body adornments are by definition temporary.
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Body modification, on the other hand, refers to the physical alteration of the body through the use of surgery, tattooing piercing, scarification, branding,
genital mutilation, implants, and other practices. Body modifications can be permanent or temporary, although most are permanent and alter the body

forever" (Margo de Mello, 2014).

A particular practice related to body modification is Female Genital Mutilization (FGM). Here are some key facts regarding FGM provided by the
World Health Organization (2020).

Female genital mutilation (FGM) involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for
non-medical reasons.
The practice has no health benefits for girls and women.
FGM can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, and later cysts, infections, as well as complications in childbirth and increased risk of
newborn deaths.
More than 200 million girls and women alive today have been cut in 30 countries in Africa, the Middle East and Asia where FGM is concentrated.

FGM is mostly carried out on young girls between infancy and age 15.
FGM is a violation of the human rights of girls and women.
WHO is opposed to all forms of FGM, and is opposed to health care providers performing FGM (medicalization of FGM).
Treatment of health complications of FGM in 27 high prevalence countries costs 1.4 billion USD per year.

What is Pop culture?

Audrey Tramel (2013) mentions that the predominance of "pop culture” in today’s society definitely has some effects such as the way teenagers
think of themselves, how they associate with others, and how they express characteristics of their maturation.

Pop culture or popular culture from a common understanding is a culture widely accepted and patronized by the public as in pop music which is
very appealing to the youth. Pop culture influences how teens define themselves as in the case of a recent famous K-pop group, named "Momoland"
which gained the admiration of millions of Filipino teenagers.

Its influence on them goes to the point of imitating the way they dress and style their bodies, the way they talk and express themselves. It
influences the way they define themselves. Indeed, an important characteristic of every teenagers’ maturation is his/her self-definition.

Self-definition refers to the way a person sees himself. For teens, that image is influenced to a large extent by personal choices, which are, in turn,
influenced by the images and associations teens glean from pop culture on a daily basis.

Recent researchers agree that pop culture has some impact on teenagers’ self- definition. Pop culture can provide benchmarks which become
the teenagers’ basis of their self-definition. In this way, they see themselves adopting certain characteristics from the various celebrities and other
models they see in pop culture. Lastly, self-definition can be intrinsically tied into self-esteem and confidence, two critical components of a healthy
disposition throughout maturation and into adulthood.

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Pop culture icons tend to extend their visibility beyond culture and into brands, which they sell via advertisements or products carrying their
name.

Teenagers who see, for instance, Liza Soberano or James Reid using beauty products like Vicky Belo's kojic soap, may then be influenced to
patronize that label. Beyond fostering a certain degree of commercialism, these brands have associations in and of themselves that tie into self-
definition or social groups within a teenager’s life. Often, celebrity brands tie into an acceptance level among teenagers, such that some teenagers feel
they must own a particular brand in order to be accepted. These sentiments can distract teenagers from key aspects of their development.

So then, in our hyper-mediated society, we are constantly beset with media images especially advertisements representing appropriate bodies
or skin, so that we internalize these and either attempt to conform to them or resist them. The media creates ideals, in the form of celebrities and
models, for men and women to admire. These give us pressure to conform to expectations. Images in the media often make us worry about our own
appearance, defining what body is attractive and which one is not, seeing being fat as unattractive, etc.

It seems contemporary culture is obsessed with the body. At any moment, we are likely to be told, from a variety of media, how the body should
act and should look; also telling us how we should dress, what our weight should be, how we should spend our leisure and even how our bodies should
age. Through media, campaign on the use of certain beauty products, has the goal of improving the look of the spokes model in order to improve
his/her appearance to perfection using those cosmetics. As a result, most women are dissatisfied with their appearance which, Annie Lennox says, is
the "stuff that fuels the fashion and beauty industries". This results in women feeling insecure about their own appearance and then conforming to the
media's perception of beauty by buying beauty products such as make-up, creams, and hair dyes. "Beauty has become a currency system and it
assigns hierarchical value to women, encouraging escalating consumerism.

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Physical Self

The Influence of Media on the Adolescent's Understanding of Beauty

Genesis M. Javellana (2014) mentions that the media plays a large role in how teenagers view themselves by shaping images or what teenagers
are supposed to be or do. Research findings revealed that:

Internet- is the most frequently used media with the respondents using it often.

Magazines-have the strongest negative relationship with the weight of the respondents, and, proposed that measures such as media awareness
seminars and screening and balancing or commercials and advertisements on television and magazines are needed to balance the effects of media
on adolescents.

Findings from further studies, showed that teenagers:

 Imagine themselves being the actor/actress in a movie they have watched.

 They copy an actor's/actress' clothes, hairstyle, and/or lines in the movie because it would make them look cool or feel good.
 They like a movie because the actor/s and or actress/ es clothes, in that movie look exceptionally good.
 They immediately try any new product that they saw in a commercial.
 They use the product endorsed by their favorite actor/actress.
 They feel upset after seeing handsome/beautiful personalities on or internet.
 They spend more than nine hours in a week online, searching tips, advice and/or procedures from the internet that would improve their
outward appearance.
 They edit their solo pictures to make them look better before posting them online.
 They feel handsome/beautiful when their solo picture gets a lot of likes.
 Similarly, teenagers follow a lot of beauty, fashion and/or fitness advice that they rea ad from magazines.
 They also feel unhappy about their weight after seeing a model from a magazine.

In the concepts of physical changes in the body and identity of the adolescent, Davies& Furnham, found out that the average teenager is
sensitive to, and critical of, his/her physical self. Constant exposure to cultural standards of beauty in evaluating own body image (via media and social
networks) may produce non-normative shit in the form of dieting practices which may lead to eating disorders as a result of body image dissatisfaction,
the feeling of discrepancy between actual and ideal body image.

Researchers have found body image dissatisfaction to be a strong predictor of depression, exercise dependence, eating disorders and steroid
use among young people in the US (Stice and Withenton, 2002).

Boys body image is generally more positive than girls, and boys are much more likely to welcome weight gain. Simmons and Blyth's "Cultural ldeal
Hypothesis" indicate that puberty brings boys closer to their ideal body while girls shift further from theirs. A Cultural ideal is that male bodies be
big and strong while ideal female bodies in Western (and Asian) culture is slim.

The Cultural Ideal Hypothesis predicts that, since the cultural ideal for the female body is being slim, adolescent girls should more likely to
express body dissatisfaction and resort to dieting.

Caufmann and Steinberg say that girls in western cultures are more concerned about appearance and express more worry and concern about
how other people respond to them than in other cultures. If body shape is far from dominant cultural ideal of slimness, teens are more likely to
develop low self-esteem and negative body image.
Strikingly, today, girls exposed to images of Barbie dolls reported lower body esteem and a greater desire for a thinner body shape. Clearly, the
body-image expectations of pre-teens can be distorted with their ‘If Barbie and Ken Were Real’ thinking. Barbie's neck would be too long and thin
to support the weight of her head, and her upper body proportions would make it difficult for her to walk upright. In Ken's case, his huge barrel
chest and enormously thick neck would nearly preclude him from wearing a shirt. Ken would be 7 feet 2 inches tall while Barbie would be 5 feet 2
inches. (Brownell and Napolitano, 1995).

Certainly, the exposure to the thin-ideal media image on women posed a great impact on their self-esteem. It increased body dissatisfaction,
negative mood states, and eating disorder symptoms and decreased self-esteem. "Exposure to thin-ideal media images may contribute to the
development of eating disorders by causing body dissatisfaction, negative moods, low self-esteem, and eating disorders symptoms among women"
(Hawkins, et. al., 2010). Miller also speaks of the disturbing problem of very young girls dieting and having negative thoughts about their body.

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Society gives us a number of reference points that shape our perceptions whether positive or negative. When it comes to our bodies there are a
number of sources that affect us more than the others.

The Media

The images of perfection we see in print, film, and television projects an unrealistic version of reality that we are continually told is attainable - if
we work out, eat less, and lather our bodies in transformative, firming and tightening creams.

The media are powerful tools that reinforces cultural beliefs and values, and while they may not be fully responsible for determining the
standards tor physical attractiveness, they make escaping the barrage of images and attitudes almost impossible.

Prejudice – Size

Intolerance of body diversity has a lot to do with prejudice of size and shape in our culture. Being thin, toned, and muscular has become
associated with the hard-working, successful, popular, beautiful, strong, and the disciplined. Being fat is associated with lazy, ugly, weak, and lacking
in will-power.

With this prejudice, fat is not a description like tall or redhead - it's an indication of moral character and we are conditioned to think that fat is
bad.

Those closest to us - family and friends

We learn from other people, particularly those closest to us about the things that are considered important. Friendships are particularly
important in body image development because we place high value in them, spends lots of time with our friends and develop shared experiences,
values, and beliefs.

Classrooms, university dorms, and common rooms are often filled with negative body talk: "I wish I had her stomach" "I hate my thighs," "I feel
fat." Listening to this tends to reinforce the need to focus on appearance and make comparisons between us and other people's bodies.

But the impact of media and society in general, are not all bad.

As with most things, with the bad comes the potential for good. If not for this awakening, we would not have initiatives like Live Life, Get Active;
where awakening ourselves to a healthy and fulfilled life is at the core of what we do.

Live Life Get Active is a social initiative built to create a fitter, healthier, and happier lifestyle. We approach health and well-being from a fun and
socially engaging perspective and the importance we put on a healthy lifestyle. People nowadays exposed themselves to biking, yoga, Zumba, sports
and other wellness activities.

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self

Physical Self

Self-esteem and its Significance

Self-esteem, sometimes referred to as self-worth or self-respect, is an important part of success.

Too little self-esteem can leave people feeling defeated or depressed. It can also lead people to make bad choices, fall into destructive relationships,
or fail to live up to their full potential.

Too much self-esteem, however, as exhibited in narcissistic personality disorder, can certainly be irritating to others and can even damage personal
relationships". (Kendra Cherry)

The Concept of Self-esteem

Self-esteem levels at the extreme high and low ends of the spectrum can be harmful, so ideally, it's best to strike a balance somewhere in the
middle. A realistic yet positive view of yourself is generally considered the ideal. But what exactly is self-esteem? Where does it come from and what
influence does it really have on our lives?

In Psychology, the term self-esteem is used to describe a person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. In other words, it is how much
you appreciate and like yourself. Self-esteem is often seen as a personality trait which tends to be stable and enduring. Self-esteem can involve a
variety of beliefs about yourself, such as the appraisal of your own appearance, beliefs, emotions, and behaviors.

Why is Self-esteem important?

Self-esteem can play a significant role in one’s motivation and success throughout life. Low self-esteem may hold you back from succeeding at
school or work because you don't believe yourself to be capable of success. By contrast, having a healthy self-esteem can help you achieve because
you navigate life with a positive, assertive attitude and believe you can accomplish your goals.

Maslow suggested that people need both esteem from other people as well as inner self-respect. Both of these needs must be fulfilled in order
for an individual to grow as a person and achieve self-actualization. Self-esteem is one of the basic human motivations.

Those who consistently receive overly critical or negative assessments from caregivers, family members, and friends, for example, will likely
experience problems with low self-esteem. Additionally, your inner thinking, age, any potential illnesses, disabilities, or physical limitations, and your job
can affect your self-esteem.

“Possessing little self-regard can lead people to become depressed, to fall short of their potential, or to tolerate abusive situations and relationships. Too
much self-love, on the other hand, results in an irritating sense of entitlement and an inability to learn from failures. It can also be a sign of clinical
narcissism which is a personality disorder.”

So how can we build a strong, positive body image?

Positive body image involves understanding that healthy attractive bodies come in many shapes and sizes, and that physical appearance says
very little about our character or value as a person. How we get to this point of acceptance often depends on our individual development and self-
acceptance. To get too that all important point of balance, there are a few steps we can take:

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Recognize that size prejudice is a form of discrimination, as shape and size are not indicators of character, morality, intelligence, or success;

Approach health and well-being from a firm and socially engaging perspective; and put importance on a healthy lifestyle and;

Keep in mind that the body, in whatever shape or size, is good and sacred, having been created in the image and likeness of god. Such body
deserves love and respect.

We will have a positive body image when we have a realistic perception of our bodies, when we enjoy, accept and celebrate who or what and
how we are, and let go of negative societal or media perpetuated conditioning.

IT PAYS TO READ!

Clothing and Self-Image

By: Jill L Ferguson

Your style and the clothes you choose reflect and affect your mood, health, and overall confidence. Scientists call this phenomenon "enclothed
cognition.” Adam Hajo and Adam D. Galinsky, both professors at the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University wrote in the Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology that enclothed cognition "involves the co- occurrence of two independent factors the symbolic meaning of the clothes and the
physical experience of wearing them.”

It was further asserted that when we put on a piece of clothing we cannot help but adopt some of the characteristics associated with it unconsciously.
The Business Insider says that clothes don't just affect your confidence level, they can affect your success, as clothing significantly influences how others
perceive you and how they respond to you.

Understanding the psychological dynamics of why the right-for-us clothing can contribute to our confidence, raise our self-esteem, and help propel us
in the workplace has become big business. So the next time you reach for those yoga pants or for that fiery red dress, ask yourself how will that clothing item
make you feel and what is it saying to the world around you today?

“If beauty and fame bring ideal relationships, then celebrities should have the best marriages. But for those who live simply, walk humbly
and love genuinely, all good will come back to you! That's life. Enjoy yours!"

-Dr. Ben Carson

** END of LESSON on THE PHYSICAL SELF***

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948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Sexual Self

Introduction to Sexual Self

Sexu ality is one of the fundamental drives behind everyone’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. It defines the means of
biological reproduction, describes psychological and sociological representations of self, and orients a person’s attraction to others. Further, it shapes the brain and
body to be pleasure-seeking. Yet, as important as sexuality is to being human, it is often viewed as a sensitive topic for personal or scientific inquiry.

This module presents an opportunity for you to think openly and objectively about sex. Without shame or sensitivity, using science as a lens, we examine
fundamental aspects of human sexuality— including gender, sexual orientation, fantasies, behaviors, paraphilia, and sexual consent.

Sexuality is commonly defined as “the ways people experience and express themselves as sexual beings” (King, 2014, p. 373).

The World Health Organization (WHO) provides a working definition of the term “sexuality” that encompasses or specifies much more.

Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy
and reproduction. Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships.
While sexuality can include all of these dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed (WHO, 2006a as cited in “Defining Sexual Health”, 2018, para.
6).

Sex influences the way we dress, talk and behave. In many ways, sex defines who we are. It is so important that the eminent neuropsychologist Karl
Pribram (1958) described sex as one of four basic human drive states. Drive states motivate us to accomplish goals. They are linked to our survival. According to
Pribram, feeding, fighting, fleeing, and sex are the four drives behind every thought, feeling, and behavior. Since these drives are so closely associated with our
psychological and physical health, you might assume people would study, understand, and discuss them openly. Your assumption would be generally correct for
three of the four drives (Malacane & Beckmeyer, 2016).

Ignorance about sex and sexuality is deadly and may cause serious problems. Sex education may not yet have been implemented in the country in a full
blast but it doesn’t mean that learning cannot take place. If more Filipinos would continue to learn, whether formally or informally, about proper sex education, than
it may be indirectly passed on to young children through teaching proper hygiene or through being discerning of a child’s actions, reactions, questions, or
comments about sex. Sex education is not to promote sexual intercourse but to promote good sexual health and safety from sexual violence. “Withholding
information about sex and sexuality will not keep children safe; it will only keep them ignorant” (Hauser, 2013, para. 2).
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Sexual Self

Sexual Development
As one grows up, one experiences many changes. There are changes in the body; in the way one behaves and the way others expect one to be. There are
also changes in interests and preoccupations. All of this is normal. It is part of growing up, but growing up is not easy. This is a time when one has many questions
and hardly any answers. It is difficult to talk about the things upper-most in your mind. Why is my body changing? Why do I get an erection? Why do I feel attracted
to the opposite sex? Many older people are not willing to discuss these issues openly. As a result, your friends (peer group), TV, films, magazines and imagination
become your sources of information.

In order to deal with the confusion, we need to know the facts of growing up, distinguish between myths and realities and come to terms with change. This
module deals with these issues.

“It’s natural for everyone to become more sexually aware, but it doesn’t mean you are ready to have sex” (Cole, 2009, p. 11).

Puberty could have been less stressful if only we were properly oriented of what to expect physically and emotionally. Just by reading few books on sexuality,
we would be comforted to know how normal the things and feelings we thought were abnormal. Though puberty is normal, it is not a one size fits all experience. It
could manifest in varying rates and specific ages. Every individual “develops and reacts in different ways” due to factors like stress, weight, nutrition, hormonal activity,
and inherent characteristics” (Cole, 2009, p. 4).

People have been scientifically investigating sex for only about 125 years. The first scientific investigations of sex employed the case study method of
research. Using this method, the English physician Henry Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) examined diverse topics within sexuality. From 1897 to 1923, his findings
were published in a seven-volume set of books titled Studies in the Psychology of Sex. Among his most noteworthy findings is that transgender people are distinct
from homosexual people. Ellis’s studies led him to be an advocate of equal rights for women and comprehensive human sexuality education in public schools.

Using case studies, the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) is credited with being the first scientist to link sex to healthy development and to
recognize humans as being sexual throughout their lifespans, including childhood (Freud, 1905).

Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud, childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults. Freud
viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us must pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturance
and parenting during a stage, we may become stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud’s stages are called the stages of psychosexual development. According to Freud,
children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of development: oral, anal,
phallic, latency, and genital.

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

As we develop from infancy to childhood, our sexual or libidinal energies focus on different parts of the bodies (erogenous zones). The primary goal of
the individual at each stage is to maximize the gratification of needs associated with the center of libidinal pleasure, in a way that conforms or is acceptable to reality.
If that balance is not attained, however –if needs are not gratified or is over gratified at a certain stage – the individual’s libidinal energies remain stuck, or fixated to a
particular needs characteristic of that stage.

Stage Age Erogenous Zone Gratifying Activity Fixation

Nursing-eating, sucking, biting Gossiping and talking too much, overeating, smoking,
Oral 0-18 months Mouth swallong (feeding) nail biting, chewing on gums, sarcasm
Anal Expulsive:-excessively sloppy, disorganized,
reckless, careless, defiantAnal Retentive:-very careful,
Anal 18 months-3years Anus Bowel movement
stingy, obstinate, meticulous, conforming, passive-
aggressive
Anxiety and guilt feelings about sex, and narcissistic
Masturbation and Genital
personality, interpersonal problems, problems with
Phallic 4-5 years Genital fondling*Oedipus Complex*Electra
authority of the same-sex parent, uncertainty in gender
Complex
identity
Latency 6-11 years None Learning and social adjustment None
Masturbation and Heterosexual
Genital 11 to adulthood Genital Relationship Normal

While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research, we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of
psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud’s psychosexual stages as a legitimate explanation for how one’s personality develops, but what we can take away
from Freud’s theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we have in childhood.

According to Freud, each of these stages could be passed through in a healthy or unhealthy manner. In unhealthy manners, people might develop
psychological problems, such as frigidity, impotence, or anal-retentiveness.
0-2 ORAL
-Infant achieves gratification through oral activities such as feeding, thumb sucking and babbling.

2-3 ANAL
-The children learns to respond to some of the demands of society(such as bowel and bladder
control.)

3-7 PHALLIC
The children learns to realize the differences between males and females and becomes aware of
sexuality.

7-11 LATENCY
-The child continues his or her development but sexual urges are relatively quient

11-adult GENITAL
-The gropwing adolescent shakes off old dependencies and learns to deal maturely with opposite
sex.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Sexual Self

Diversity of Sexual Behavior

Applying for a scholarship or filling out a job application requires your name, address, and birth-date. Additionally, applications usually ask for your sex or
gender. It’s common for us to use the terms “sex” and “gender” interchangeably. However, in modern usage, these terms are distinct from one another.

Sex describes means of biological reproduction. Sex includes sexual organs, such as ovaries— defining what it is to be a female—or testes—defining what
it is to be a male. Interestingly, biological sex is not as easily defined or determined as you might expect (see the section on variations in sex, below). By contrast,
the term gender describes psychological (gender identity) and sociological (gender role) representations of biological sex. At an early age, we begin learning
cultural norms for what is considered masculine and feminine. For example, children may associate long hair or dresses with femininity. Later in life, as adults, we
often conform to these norms by behaving in gender-specific ways: as men, we build houses; as women, we bake cookies (Marshall, 1989; Money et al., 1955;
Weinraub et al., 1984).

Because cultures change over time, so too do ideas about gender. For example, European and American cultures today associate pink with femininity and
blue with masculinity. However, less than a century ago, these same cultures were swaddling baby boys in pink, because of its masculine associations with “blood
and war,” and dressing little girls in blue, because of its feminine associations with the Virgin Mary (Kimmel, 1996).

GENDER IDENTITY GENDER EXPRESSION BIOLOGICAL SEX SEXUAL ORIENTATION

How you think about How you Organs, hormones Physical, spiritual
yourself demonstrate your and chromosomes and emotional
gender attraction.
Woman Female
Gender Queer Feminine Intersex Heterosexual
Man androgynous male Bisexual
Musculine homosexual

An explanation of the diversity of human sexuality and sexual orientation

Sex and gender are important aspects of a person’s identity. However, they do not tell us about a person’s sexual orientation (Rule & Ambady, 2008).
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s sexual attraction to others. Within the context of sexual orientation, sexual attraction refers to a person’s capacity to
arouse the sexual interest of another, or, conversely, the sexual interest one person feels toward another.

We live in an era when sex, gender, and sexual orientation are controversial religious and political issues. Some nations have laws against homosexuality,
while others have laws protecting same-sex marriages. At a time when there seems to be little agreement among religious and political groups, it makes sense to
wonder, “What is normal?” and, “Who decides?”

The international scientific and medical communities (e.g., World Health Organization, World Medical Association, World Psychiatric Association,
Association for Psychological Science) view variations of sex, gender, and sexual orientation as normal. Furthermore, variations of sex, gender, and sexual
orientation occur naturally throughout the animal kingdom. More than 500 animal species have homosexual or bisexual orientations (Lehrer, 2006). More than
65,000 animal species are intersex—born with either an absence or some combination of male and female reproductive organs, sex hormones, or sex
chromosomes (Jarne & Auld, 2006). In humans, intersex individuals make up about two percent—more than 150 million people—of the world’s population
(Blackless et al., 2000). There are dozens of intersex conditions, such as Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome and Turner’s Syndrome (Lee et al., 2006). The term
“syndrome” can be misleading; although intersex individuals may have physical limitations (e.g., about a third of Turner’s individuals have heart defects; Matura et al.,
2007), they otherwise lead relatively normal intellectual, personal, and social lives. In any case, intersex individuals demonstrate the diverse variations of biological
sex.

Just as biological sex varies more widely than is commonly thought, so too does gender. Cisgender individuals’ gender identities correspond with their birth
sexes, whereas transgender individuals’ gender identities do not correspond with their birth sexes. Because gender is so deeply ingrained culturally, rates of
transgender individuals vary widely around the world.
 Sexual orientation is as diverse as gender identity. Instead of thinking of sexual orientation as being two categories—homosexual and heterosexual—Kinsey
argued that it’s a continuum (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948). He measured orientation on a continuum, using a 7-point Likert scale called the Heterosexual-
Homosexual Rating Scale, in which 0 is exclusively heterosexual, 3 is bisexual, and 6 is exclusively homosexual. Later researchers using this method have
found 18% to 39% of Europeans and Americans identifying as somewhere between heterosexual and homosexual (Lucas et al., 2017; YouGov.com, 2015). Of the
39 countries covered by a global survey, only 17 countries had majorities that accepted homosexuality, with the Philippines ranking at number 10 among the 17
(https://globalnation.inquirer.net/).

SEXUAL ORIENTATION SPECTRUM

Asexual
No sexual attraction

Demisexual
Little sexual attraction

Allosexual
sexual attraction

Heterosexual Bisexual/Pansexual Homosexual

Emotional, physical, Emotional, physical, Emotional, physical,
spiritual and/or sexual spiritual and/or sexual spiritual and/or sexual
attraction to people of attraction to people of attraction to people of the
another gender. more than one/all same gender
genders.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Sexual Self

Circles of Sexuality

Sensuality
Skin hunger
Aural/visula stimuli
Sexual response
Sexualization cycle
Flirting Body image
Media fantasy Intimacy
messages/images Caring
Seduction Sharing
Withholding sex Loving/liking
Sexual harassment risk taking
Incest Vulnerability
Sexual assault/rape Trust
VALUES reciprocity

Sexual Health&
Reproduction Sexual Identity
Anatomy & physiology Biological sex
Sexual/reproductive Gender identity
systems gender expression
Intercourse Gender role
Contraception/abortion Sexual orientation
Sexually transmitted
infections

"Circles of sexuality” adapted from life

planning education, 1995,

Adapted from Life Planning Education, a comprehensive sex education curriculum. Washington, DC: Advocates for Youth, 2007.

Sexuality is much more than sexual feelings or sexual intercourse. It is an important part of who a person is and what she/he will become. It includes all the
feelings, thoughts, and behaviors associated with being female or male, being attractive and being in love, as well as being in relationships that include sexual
intimacy and sensual and sexual activity. It also includes enjoyment of the world as we know it through the five senses: taste, touch, smell, hearing, and sight.

Circle #1—Sensuality

Sensuality is awareness and feeling about your own body and other people's bodies, especially the body of a sexual partner. Sensuality enables us to feel good
about how our bodies look and feel and what they can do. Sensuality also allows us to enjoy the pleasure our bodies can give us and others. This part of our
sexuality affects our behavior in several ways.

Body image—Feeling attractive and proud of one's own body and the way it functions influences many aspects of life. Adolescents often choose media
personalities as the standard for how they should look, so they are often disappointed by what they see in the mirror. They may be especially dissatisfied
when the mainstream media does not portray or does not positively portray physical characteristics the teens see in the mirror, such as color of skin, type or hair,
shape of eyes, height, or body shape.
Experiencing pleasure—Sensuality allows a person to experience pleasure when certain parts of the body are touched. People also experience sensual
pleasure from taste, touch, sight, hearing, and smell as part of being alive.
Satisfying skin hunger—The need to be touched and held by others in loving, caring ways is often referred to as skin hunger. Adolescents typically receive
considerably less touch from their parents than do younger children. Many teens satisfy their skin hunger through close physical contact with peers. Sexual
intercourse may sometimes result from a teen's need to be held, rather than from sexual desire.
Feeling physical attraction for another person—The center of sensuality and attraction to others is not in the genitals (despite all the jokes). The center of
sensuality and attraction to others is in the brain, humans' most important "sex organ." The unexplained mechanism responsible for sexual attraction rests in
the brain, not in the genitalia.
 Fantasy—The brain also gives people the capacity to have fantasies about sexual behaviors and experiences. Adolescents often need help understanding
that sexual fantasy is normal and that one does not have to act upon sexual fantasies.

Circle #2—Sexual Intimacy

Sexual intimacy is the ability to be emotionally close to another human being and to accept closeness in return. Several aspects of intimacy include

Sharing—Sharing intimacy is what makes personal relationships rich. While sensuality is about physical closeness, intimacy focuses on emotional closeness.
Caring—Caring about others means feeling their joy and their pain. It means being open to emotions that may not be comfortable or convenient. Nevertheless,
an intimate relationship is possible only when we care.
Liking or loving another person—Having emotional attachment or connection to others is a manifestation of intimacy.\
Emotional risk-taking—To have true intimacy with others, a person must open up and share feelings and personal information. Sharing personal thoughts and
feelings with someone else is risky, because the other person may not feel the same way. But it is not possible to be really close with another person without
being honest and open with her/him.
Vulnerability—To have intimacy means that we share and care, like or love, and take emotional risks. That makes us vulnerable—the person with whom we
share, about whom we care, and whom we like or love, has the power to hurt us emotionally. Intimacy requires vulnerability, on the part of each person in the
relationship.

Circle #3—Sexual Identity

Sexual identity is a person's understanding of who she/he is sexually, including the sense of being male or of being female. Sexual identity consists of three
"interlocking pieces" that, together, affect how each person sees him/herself. Each "piece" is important.

Gender identity—Knowing whether one is male or female. Most young children determine their own gender identity by age two. Sometime, a person's
biological gender is not the same as his/her gender identity—this is called being transgender.
Gender role—Identifying actions and/or behaviors for each gender. Some things are determined by the way male and female bodies are built or function. For
example, only women menstruate and only men produce sperm. Other gender roles are culturally determined. In some countries like the Philippines, it is
considered appropriate for only women to wear dresses to work in the business world. In other cultures, men may wear skirt-like outfits everywhere.

There are many "rules" about what men and women can/should do that have nothing to do with the way their bodies are built or function. This aspect of
sexuality is especially important for young adolescents to understand, since peer, parent, and cultural pressures to be "masculine" or "feminine"
increase during the adolescent years. Both young men and young women need help sorting out how perceptions about gender roles affect whether they
feel encouraged or discouraged in their choices about relationships, leisure activities, education, and career.

Gender bias means holding stereotyped opinions about people according to their gender. Gender bias might include believing that women are less
intelligent or less capable than men, that men suffer from "testosterone poisoning," that men cannot raise children without the help of women, that
women cannot be analytical, that men cannot be sensitive. Many times, people hold fast to these stereotyped opinions without giving rational thought to
the subject of gender.

Sexual orientation—Whether a person's primary attraction is to people of the other gender (heterosexuality) or to the same gender (homosexuality) or to both
genders (bisexuality) defines his/her sexual orientation. Sexual orientation begins to emerge by adolescence although many gay and lesbian youth say they
knew they felt same sex attraction by age 10 or 11. Between three and 10—percent of the general population is probably exclusively homosexual in
orientation. Perhaps another 10 percent of the general population feel attracted to both genders.

Heterosexual, gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth can all experience same-gender sexual attraction and/or activity around puberty. Such behavior,
including sexual play with samegender peers, crushes on same-gender adults, or sexual fantasies about same-gender people are normal for pre-teens
and young teens and are not necessarily related to sexual orientation.

Negative social messages and homophobic culture in the society can mean that young adolescents who are experiencing sexual attraction to and
romantic feelings for someone of their own gender need support so they can clarify their feelings and accept their sexuality.
Circle #4—Reproduction and Sexual Health

These are a person's capacity to reproduce and the behaviors and attitudes that make sexual relationships healthy and enjoyable.

Factual information about reproduction—Is necessary so youth will understand how male and female reproductive systems function and how conception
and/or STD infection occur. Adolescents often have inadequate information about their own and/or their partner's body. Teens need this information so they
can make informed decisions about sexual expression and protect their health. Youth need to understand anatomy and physiology because every adolescent
needs the knowledge and understanding to help him/her appreciate the ways in which his/her body functions.
Feelings and attitudes—Are wide-ranging when it comes to sexual expression and reproduction and to sexual health-related topics such as STD infection,
HIV and AIDS, contraceptive use, abortion, pregnancy, and childbirth.
Sexual intercourse—Is one of the most common behaviors among humans. Sexual intercourse is a behavior that may produce sexual pleasure that often
culminates in orgasm in females and in males. Sexual intercourse may also result in pregnancy and/or STDs. In programs for youth, discussion of sexual
intercourse is often limited to the bare mention of male-female (penile-vaginal) intercourse. However, youth need accurate health information about sexual
intercourse—vaginal, oral, and anal.
Reproductive and sexual anatomy—The male and female body and the ways in which they actually function is a part of sexual health. Youth can learn to
protect their reproductive and sexual health. This means that teens need information about all the effective methods of contraception currently available, how
they work, where to obtain them, their effectiveness, and their side effects. This means that youth also need to know how to use latex condoms to prevent
STD infection. Even if youth are not currently engaging in sexual intercourse, they probably will do so at some point in the future. They must know how to
prevent pregnancy and/or disease.

Finally, youth also need to know that traditional methods of preventing pregnancy (that may be common in that particular community and/or culture) may be
ineffective in preventing pregnancy and may, depending on the method, even increase susceptibility to STDs. The leader will need to determine what those
traditional methods are, their effectiveness, and their side effects before he/she can discuss traditional methods of contraception in a culturally appropriate and
informative way.

Sexual reproduction—The actual processes of conception, pregnancy, delivery, and recovery following childbirth are important parts of sexuality. Youth need
information about sexual reproduction—the process whereby two different individuals each contribute half of the genetic material to their child. The child is,
therefore, not identical to either parent. [Asexual reproduction is a process whereby simple one-celled organisms reproduce by splitting, creating two separate
one-celled organisms identical to the original [female] organism before it split.] Too many programs focus exclusively on sexual reproduction when providing
sexuality education and ignore all the other aspects of human sexuality.

Circle #5—Sexualization

Sexualization is that aspect of sexuality in which people behave sexually to influence, manipulate, or control other people. Often called the "shadowy" side of
human sexuality, sexualization spans behaviors that range from the relatively harmless to the sadistically violent, cruel, and criminal. These sexual behaviors
include flirting, seduction, withholding sex from an intimate partner to punish her/him or to get something, sexual harassment, sexual abuse, and rape. Teens need
to know that no one has the right to exploit them sexually and that they do not have the right to exploit anyone else sexually.

Flirting—Is a relatively harmless sexualization behavior. Nevertheless, upon occasion it is an attempt to manipulate someone else, and it can cause the
person manipulated to feel hurt, humiliation, and shame.
Seduction—Is the act of enticing someone to engage in sexual activity. The act of seduction implies manipulation that at times may prove harmful for the one
who is seduced.
Sexual harassment—Is an illegal behavior. Sexual harassment means harassing someone else because of her/his gender. It could mean making personal,
embarrassing remarks about someone's appearance, especially characteristics associated with sexual maturity, such as the size of a woman's breasts or of a
man's testicles and penis. It could mean unwanted touching, such as hugging a subordinate or patting someone's bottom. It could mean demands by a
teacher, supervisor, or other person in authority for sexual intercourse in exchange for grades, promotion, hiring, raises, etc. All these behaviors are
manipulative. The Philippine laws of the {provide protection against sexual harassment. Youth should know that they have the right to file a complaint with
appropriate authorities if they are sexually harassed and that others may complain of their behavior if they sexually harass someone else.
Rape—Means coercing or forcing someone else to have genital contact with another. Sexual assault can include forced petting as well as forced sexual
intercourse. Force, in the case of rape, can include use of overpowering strength, threats, and/or implied threats that arouse fear in the person raped. Youth
need to know that rape is always illegal and always cruel. Youth should know that they are legally entitled to the protection of the criminal justice system if
they are the victims of rape and that they may be prosecuted if they force anyone else to have genital contact with them for any reason. Refusing to accept
no and forcing the other person to have sexual intercourse always means rape.
Incest—Means forcing sexual contact on any minor who is related to the perpetrator by birth or marriage. Incest is always illegal and is extremely cruel
because it betrays the trust that children and youth give to their families. Moreover, because the older person knows that incest is illegal and tries to hide the
crime, he/she often blames the child/youth. The triple burden of forced sexual contact, betrayed trust, and self-blame makes incest particularly damaging to
survivors of incest.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Sexual Self

The Basic Biology of Sexual Behavior: Teen Sexual Behavior

The change from child to adult is an especially dangerous time for adolescents in our society. From their earliest years, children watch television shows and
movies that insist that "sex appeal" is a personal quality that people need to develop to the fullest (focusas.com/SexualBehavior-Range.html, 2008). While
adolescents and their parents generally agree about many issues and aspects of life, they hold strikingly different views on sex. Parents, based on their
perspective from greater experience, urge caution and restraint.

Adolescents, experiencing strong sexual desire for the first time and eager for all pleasures life can offer, are frequently tempted to throw caution to the wind
and indulge (Tria, et al., 2012). TV, movies, and music are not the only influences the Internet provides teens with seemingly unlimited access to information on sex
as well as a steady supply of people willing to talk about sex with them. Teens may feel safe because they can remain anonymous while looking for information on sex.
Sexual predators know this and manipulate young people into online relationships and, later, set up a time and place to meet.
(commercialexploitation.org/factsheets/ccfc-factsmarketingsex.pdf, 2008).

What about sexual orientation and coming out during the adolescence?

Adolescence is a period when people separate from their parents and families begin to develop autonomy. Adolescent can be a period of experimentation
and many youth may question their sexual feelings. Becoming aware of sexual feelings is a normal developmental task of adolescence. Sometimes adolescent
have same sex feelings or experiences that cause confusion about their sexual orientation. This confusion appears to decline over time, with different outcomes for
different individuals. Some adolescents desire and engage in same sex behaviour but do not identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual, sometimes because of the stigma
associated with a non-hetero sexual orientation.

Some adolescents experience continuing feelings of same-sex attraction but do not engage in any sexual activity or may engage in heterosexual behavior
for varying lengths of time. Because of the stigma associated with same-sex attractions, many youths experience same-sex attraction or many years before
becoming sexually active with partners of the same sex or disclosing their attractions to others. For some young people, this process of exploring same-sex
attractions leads to a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity. For some, acknowledging this identity can bring an end to confusion. When these young people receive the
support of parents and others, they are often able to live satisfying and healthy lives and move through the usual process of adolescent development. The younger
a person is when she or he acknowledges a non-heterosexual identity, the fewer internal and external resources she or he is likely to have. Therefore, youths who
come out early are particularly in need of support from parents and others. Young people who identify as lesbian, gay, or bisexual may be more likely to face
certain problems, including being bullied and having negative experiences in school. These experiences are associated with negative outcomes, such as suicidal
thoughts, and high-risk activities, such as unprotected sex and alcohol and drug use. On the other hand, many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths appear to
experience no greater level of health or mental health risks. Where problems occur, they are closely associate with experience of bias and discrimination in their
environments. Support from important people in teen’s life can provide a very helpful counterpart to bias and discrimination.

Below is the sexual response cycle. This cycle is applicable not only to teens but to adults as well.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Sexual Self

Sexual Health (Sexually Transmitted Diseases Infections and Teenage Pregnancy)

The factual information about reproduction is necessary so youth will understand how male and female reproductive systems function and how conception
and or STD infection occur. Adolescents often have inadequate information about their own and/or their partner's body Teens need this information so they can
make informed decisions about sexual expression and protect their health. Youth need to understand anatomy and physiology because every adolescent needs
the knowledge and understanding to help him/her appreciate the ways in which his her body functions (advocatesforyouth.org/publications/Ipe/index.htm, 2008).

Sexual intercourse

Sexual intercourse is one of the most common behaviors among humans Sexual intercourse is a behavior that may produce sexual pleasure that often
culminates in orgasm in females and in males. Sexual intercourse may also result in pregnancy and or STDs. ln programs for youth, discussion of sexual
intercourse is often limited to the bare mention of male-female (penile-vaginal) intercourse. However, youth need accurate health information about sexual
intercourse—vaginal, oral, and anal.

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS HAVING SEX

all teens are having sex

having sex makes you matured and an adult

something is wrong with an older teen (17-1() who is not having sex

a girl can’t get pregnant when she is menstruating

a girl can’t get pregnant if it’s her first time

you are a virgin can't have sexual intercourse --- oral sex doesn't count

oral sex is not sex

Premarital Sex

Is sexual activity practiced by people who are unmarried. It can be any sexual relations a person has prior to marriage. The alternative terms for premarital
sex have been suggested, including non-marital sex (which overlaps with adultery), youthful sex, adolescent and young adult sex.

A 2014 Pew study on global morality found that premarital sex was considered particularly unacceptable in predominantly Muslim nations", such as Indonesia.
Jordan, Pakistan and Egypt, each having over disapproval, while people in Western European countries were the most accepting with Spain, Germany and France
expressing less than 10% disapproval. People who have premarital sex are recommended by health professionals to tak precautions to protect themselves against
sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS. There is also a risk of an unplanned pregnancy in heterosexual relationships

FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE HAVING PREMARITAL SEX

Having poorly educated parents

Unsupportive family relationships

Lack of Parental supervision

Friends who are sexually active

Poor school grades poor academic performance

Poor spiritual exercises (not hearing mass, lack of church involvement

Engaged in risky leisure activities

Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections

These are also known as Venereal Diseases (VD). They are passed through sexual contact or genital through vaginal intercourse, oral sex and anal sex.
The term STI evolved from "venereal disease" to "sexually transmitted disease", then "sexually transmitted infection" which has a broader range of meaning: that it
can be passed without disease. (You don't have to be ill to infect others)

HIV/AIDS

HIV is "Human Immunodeficiency Virus". This is a retrovirus-genetic info @RNA than DNA. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS and it is preventable and
manageable but no curable. AIDS is "Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome". Since this is a syndrome, there are several manifestations of the breakdown in
body's immune system and have developed in people who have been infected by HIV.
 How do people get AIDS? AIDS is developed through:

Bodily fluids (blood products--transfusions, semen and vaginal fluids)

Intravenous (IV) Drug Abuse (sharing needles and use of unsterilized blades)
Sexual intercourse (unprotected vaginal, oral and anal sex)

HIV/AIDS Situationer:

In the Philippines, here is the number of HIV/AIDS cases reported:

2000 1 case in every 3 days

2009 2 cases in each day
2010 5 cases in each day
2012 1 in every 3 hours (8 cases in each day)
2014 17 cases in each day
2015 22 cases in each day

Around the World, there are 448 million new infections of curable sexually transmitted infections which occur yearly.

Teenage Pregnancy

This is pregnancy in human females under the age of 20 at the time that the pregnancy ends. Pregnant teenagers face many of the same obstetrics issues
as other women. There are, however, additional medical concerns for mothers aged below 15 years old. For mothers aged 15-19, risks are associated more with socio-
economic factors than with the biological effects of age. In teenage pregnancy, there are risks of low birth weight, premature labor, anemia, and pre- eclampsia are
connected to the biological age itself, as it was observed in teen births. Every day in developing countries, 20,000 girls under age 18 give birth.

This amounts to 73 million births a year. And if all pregnancies are included, the number of adolescent pregnancies is much higher

THINK ABOUT THESE:

Having SEX isn't always a healthy choice. Impulsive decisions can lead to lifelong problems: serious disease and infertility

Abstinence is an OPTION. Choosing not to engage in sexual contact with another person can be a very powerful personal choice.

Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy

Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy. It is unclear if a single intervention is most effective.
In the United States free access to a long acting form of reversible birth control along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the
rate of abortions by more than 75%.

Education

The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes,
communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health care system
guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.

Abstinence only education

Some schools provide abstinence-only sex education. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of abstinence-only sex education. It has been found to
be ineffective in decreasing HIV risk in the developed world, and does not decrease rates of unplanned pregnancy when compared to comprehensive sex education.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Sexual Self

Responsible Parenthood

In Philippine education, the concept of Family Planning is a mandatory topic in the curriculum. Family Planning, also called Responsible Parenthood, is as
old as humankind. It is a simple way of regulating and spacing the births of children. It is giving birth according to the health and economic conditions of the family,
giving birth of the mother according to her right age. Conception is not left to chance. Benefits derived from Family Planning are identified as follows:

1. For the family to promote healthy, happy family.

2. For the mother - she can recover her health and strength after delivery.
3. For the child - a better chance of growing healthy and well cared.

Family Planning Methods / Methods of Contraception

Youth also need to know that traditional methods of preventing pregnancy (that may be common in that particular community and/or culture) may be
ineffective in preventing pregnancy and may, depending on the method, even increase susceptibility to STDs. It should be determined what the traditional methods are,
their effectiveness, and their side effects and know traditional methods of contraception in a culturally appropriate and informative way, (advocatesforyouth.org
publications/Ipe/index.htm, 2008).

A concept linked to family planning is contraception, also known as birth control and fertility control. This is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy. It
is also defined as a deliberate prevention of conception or impregnation. Family planning methods and/or contraception methods are presented as follows:

1. Natural Birth Control employs natural control methods that people do to help prevent an unintended pregnancy are without the use of
modern/artificial ways of contraception. These require commitment when you make the decision, discipline and self-control for it to be effective. These include
abstinence, fertility awareness methods, the rhythm, calendar or standard days method, intercourse and continued breastfeeding, all requiring discipline and
responsibility which the Catholic Church approves.
2. Artificial Birth Control employs artificial control methods to help prevent unintended pregnancy use modern/contemporary measures such as
contraceptive or birth control pills, diaphragm, male and female condoms, spermicide, cervical cap, today sponge, birth control patch, birth control shot, birth
control implant, intrauterine device (IUD), tubal ligation/vasectomy, tubal implants and emergency contraception pill.

The best way to avoid these infections is prevention. “Prevention is better than cure”.
FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
As we develop from infancy to childhood, our sexual or libidinal energies focus on different parts of the bodies
(erogenous zones). The primary goal of the individual at each stage is to maximize the gratification of needs
associated with the center of libidinal pleasure, in a way that conforms or is acceptable to reality. If that balance is not
attained, however –if needs are not gratified or is over gratified at a certain stage – the individual’s libidinal energies
remain stuck, or fixated to a particular needs characteristic of that stage.

PSYCHOSEXUAL EROGENOUS FIXATION CONFLICTS RESULTS

STAGE ZONE
Oral stage Mouth Oral Frustration – fed on a Schedule-fed: tight lipped people who eat
incorporativ minimal schedule to only for nourishment
e meet nutritional
requirements

Oral Overindulgence – fed Demand-fed: gives rise to oral pleasures

aggressive at any time the child (Gossiping and talking too much, overeating,
wants smoking, nail biting, chewing on gums,
sarcasm)
Child is self-absorbed and egoistical

Anal Stage Anus Anal- Frustration – parents Controlling: stringent, selective of your
Retentive demand exacting friends, orderly, tidy
control of bowel habits
Anal- Overindulgence – Uncontrolled: gullible, lax, disorganized,
Expulsive parents allow child careless, messy
freedom or is lenient Generous
in bowel

Phallic stage Genitals Oedipus & Heterosexualizing Boys will grow up seeking a woman like his
Electra interactions. mother.
Complex Jealousy develops. Girl will grow up wanting to have a male
Problems with parent- child.
identification. Homosexuality if identifications are reversed.
Anxiety and guilt feelings about sex, and
narcissistic personality, interpersonal
problems, problems with authority of the
same-sex parent, uncertainty in gender
identity

Latency None None Repression of oedipal Reality principle and learning of skills.
attachment Establishing Gender identity
Reduction of sexuality
in a child.

Genital Whole Mating, Sexual instincts and Sublimate sexual energy into emotional
Body Dating And conflicts reappear commitment to sports, music, band,
(Genitals) Social Death instincts academics etc.
Interaction reappear
Life instincts Hostility, rebelliousness or juvenile
Deliquency
Vows to celibacy, Attraction to mystical
philosophies, gangs, religions, lake and
other etc.
Here is an interesting article about love!

February 14, 2017

Love, Actually: The science behind lust, attraction, and companionship

by Katherine Wu
figures by Tito Adhikary

In 1993, Haddaway asked the world, “What is Love?” I’m not sure if he ever got his answer – but today, you can have yours.

Sort of.

Scientists in fields ranging from anthropology to neuroscience have been asking this same question (albeit less eloquently) for
decades. It turns out the science behind love is both simpler and more complex than we might think.

Google the phrase “biology of love” and you’ll get answers that run the gamut of accuracy. Needless to say, the scientific basis
of love is often sensationalized, and as with most science, we don’t know enough to draw firm conclusions about every piece of
the puzzle. What we do know, however, is that much of love can be explained by chemistry. So, if there’s really a “formula” for
love, what is it, and what does it mean?

Total Eclipse of the Brain

Think of the last time you ran into someone you find attractive. You may have stammered, your palms may have sweated; you
may have said something incredibly asinine and tripped spectacularly while trying to saunter away (or is that just me?). And
chances are, your heart was thudding in your chest. It’s no surprise that, for centuries, people thought love (and most other
emotions, for that matter) arose from the heart. As it turns out, love is all about the brain – which, in turn, makes the rest of your
body go haywire.

According to a team of scientists led by Dr. Helen Fisher at Rutgers, romantic love can be broken down into three categories: lust,
attraction, and attachment. Each category is characterized by its own set of hormones stemming from the brain (Table 1).

ATTACHMENT
LUST ATTRACTION
Oxytocin
Testosterone Dopamine
Vasopressin
Estrogen Neropinephrine
serotonin

Table 1: Love can be distilled into three categories: lust, attraction, and attachment. Though there are overlaps and subtleties to
each, each type is characterized by its own set of hormones. Testosterone and estrogen drive lust; dopamine, norepinephrine, and
serotonin create attraction; and oxytocin and vasopressin mediate attachment.

Let’s Get Chemical

Lust is driven by the desire for sexual gratification. The evolutionary basis for this stems from our need to reproduce, a need
shared among all living things. Through reproduction, organisms pass on their genes, and thus contribute to the perpetuation of
their species.
The hypothalamus of the brain plays a big role in this, stimulating the production of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen
from the testes and ovaries (Figure 1). While these chemicals are often stereotyped as being “male” and “female,” respectively,
both play a role in men and women. As it turns out, testosterone increases libido in just about everyone. The effects are less
pronounced with estrogen, but some women report being more sexually motivated around the time they ovulate, when estrogen
levels are highest.

Figure 1: A: The testes and ovaries secrete the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, driving sexual desire. B and C: Dopamine,
oxytocin, and vasopressin are all made in the hypothalamus, a region of the brain that controls many vital functions as well as
emotion. D: Several of the regions of the brain that affect love. Lust and attraction shut off the prefrontal cortex of the brain,
which includes rational behavior.

Love is its Own Reward

Meanwhile, attraction seems to be a distinct, though closely related, phenomenon. While we can certainly lust for someone we
are attracted to, and vice versa, one can happen without the other. Attraction involves the brain pathways that control “reward”
behavior (Figure 1), which partly explains why the first few weeks or months of a relationship can be so exhilarating and even
all-consuming.

Dopamine, produced by the hypothalamus, is a particularly well-publicized player in the brain’s reward pathway – it’s released
when we do things that feel good to us. In this case, these things include spending time with loved ones and having sex. High
levels of dopamine and a related hormone, norepinephrine, are released during attraction. These chemicals make us giddy,
energetic, and euphoric, even leading to decreased appetite and insomnia – which means you actually can be so “in love” that you
can’t eat and can’t sleep. In fact, norepinephrine, also known as noradrenalin, may sound familiar because it plays a large role in
the fight or flight response, which kicks into high gear when we’re stressed and keeps us alert. Brain scans of people in love have
actually shown that the primary “reward” centers of the brain, including the ventral tegmental area and the caudate nucleus, fire
like crazy when people are shown a photo of someone they are intensely attracted to, compared to when they are shown someone
they feel neutral towards (like an old high school acquaintance).

Finally, attraction seems to lead to a reduction in serotonin, a hormone that’s known to be involved in appetite and mood.
Interestingly, people who suffer from obsessive-compulsive disorder also have low levels of serotonin, leading scientists to
speculate that this is what underlies the overpowering infatuation that characterizes the beginning stages of love.

The Friend Zone

Last but not least, attachment is the predominant factor in long-term relationships. While lust and attraction are pretty much
exclusive to romantic entanglements, attachment mediates friendships, parent-infant bonding, social cordiality, and many other
intimacies as well. The two primary hormones here appear to be oxytocin and vasopressin (Figure 1).

Oxytocin is often nicknamed “cuddle hormone” for this reason. Like dopamine, oxytocin is produced by the hypothalamus and
released in large quantities during sex, breastfeeding, and childbirth. This may seem like a very strange assortment of activities –
not all of which are necessarily enjoyable – but the common factor here is that all of these events are precursors to bonding. It
also makes it pretty clear why having separate areas for attachment, lust, and attraction is important: we are attached to our
immediate family, but those other emotions have no business there (and let’s just say people who have muddled this up don’t
have the best track record).
Love Hurts

This all paints quite the rosy picture of love: hormones are released, making us feel good, rewarded, and close to our romantic
partners. But that can’t be the whole story: love is often accompanied by jealousy, erratic behavior, and irrationality, along with
a host of other less-than-positive emotions and moods. It seems that our friendly cohort of hormones is also responsible for the
downsides of love.

Dopamine, for instance, is the hormone responsible for the vast majority of the brain’s reward pathway – and that means
controlling both the good and the bad. We experience surges of dopamine for our virtues and our vices. In fact, the dopamine
pathway is particularly well studied when it comes to addiction. The same regions that light up when we’re feeling attraction light
up when drug addicts take cocaine and when we binge eat sweets. For example, cocaine maintains dopamine signaling for much
longer than usual, leading to a temporary “high.” In a way, attraction is much like an addiction to another human being. Similarly,
the same brain regions light up when we become addicted to material goods as when we become emotionally dependent on our
partners (Figure 2). And addicts going into withdrawal are not unlike love-struck people craving the company of someone they
cannot see.

Figure 2: Dopamine, which runs the reward pathways in our brain, is great in moderate doses, helping us enjoy food, exciting
events, and relationships. However, we can push the dopamine pathway too far when we become addicted to food or drugs.
Similarly, too much dopamine in a relationship can underlie unhealthy emotional dependence on our partners. And while healthy
levels of oxytocin help us bond and feel warm and fuzzy towards our companions, elevated oxytocin can also fuel prejudice.

The story is somewhat similar for oxytocin: too much of a good thing can be bad. Recent studies on party drugs such as MDMA
and GHB shows that oxytocin may be the hormone behind the feel-good, sociable effects these chemicals produce. These positive
feelings are taken to an extreme in this case, causing the user to dissociate from his or her environment and act wildly and
recklessly. Furthermore, oxytocin’s role as a “bonding” hormone appears to help reinforce the positive feelings we already feel
towards the people we love. That is, as we become more attached to our families, friends, and significant others, oxytocin is
working in the background, reminding us why we like these people and increasing our affection for them. While this may be a
good things for monogamy, such associations are not always positive. For example, oxytocin has also been suggested to play a
role in ethnocentrism, increasing our love for people in our already-established cultural groups and making those unlike us seem
more foreign (Figure 2). Thus, like dopamine, oxytocin can be a bit of a double-edged sword.

And finally, what would love be without embarrassment? Sexual arousal (but not necessarily attachment) appears to turn off
regions in our brain that regulate critical thinking, self-awareness, and rational behavior, including parts of the prefrontal cortex
(Figure 2). In sh

ort, love makes us dumb. Have you ever done something when you were in love that you later regretted? Maybe not. I’d ask a
certain star-crossed Shakespearean couple, but it’s a little late for them.

So, in short, there is sort of a “formula” for love. However, it’s a work in progress, and there are many questions left unanswered.
And, as we’ve realized by now, it’s not just the hormone side of the equation that’s complicated. Love can be both the best and
worst thing for you – it can be the thing that gets us up in the morning, or what makes us never want to wake up again. I’m not
sure I could define “love” for you if I kept you here for another ten thousand pages.

In the end, everyone is capable of defining love for themselves. And, for better or for worse, if it’s all hormones, maybe each of
us can have “chemistry” with just about anyone. But whether or not it goes further is still up to the rest of you.
 OWL Grades 7-9 © 2014 by UUA & UCC

The Circles of Sexuality

WORKSHOP 1: WHAT IS SEXUALITY?

Handout 1
Schafer, eds., The DYNAMICS of Aging (Westview Press, 1981).
—adapted from D. Dailey, “Sexual Expression and Aging,” in F. Berghorn & D.
Sexuality encompasses nearly every aspect of our being, from attitudes and values to feelings and
experiences. It is influenced by the individual, family, culture, religion/spirituality, laws, professions,
institutions, science and politics.
Sensuality involves our level of
awareness, acceptance and
Sexualization involves the enjoyment of your own or others’
use of sexuality to influence, Sensuality bodies.
control, and/or manipulate Skin hunger
others. Aural/visual stimuli
Sexual responsecycle
Body image
Sexualization Fantasy Intimacy
Flirting Caring
Media messages/images Sharing Intimacy is the
Seduction Loving/liking experience of
Withholding sex Risk taking mutual closeness
Sexual harassment Vulnerability with another
Incest Self disclosure person.
Sexual assault/Rape Values Trust
Reciprocity

Sexual health and Sexual Health Sexual Identity

reproduction focuses & Reproduction
Anatomy & physiology Biological sex
on attitudes and behaviors
Sexual/reproductive systems Gender identity
related to the sexual and
Intercourse Gender expression
reproductive systems,
Workshop One WHATIS SEXUALITY?

Gender role Sexual identity is how we

including health and Contraception/abortion perceive ourselves as
Sexually transmitted Sexual orientation
hygiene, the health sexual beings.
consequences of sexual infections
behaviors, and the biology
of producing children.

“Circles of Sexuality,” adapted from Life Planning Education, 1995, Advocates for Youth, Washington DC
advocatesforyouth.org, based on the original work of Dennis M. Dailey, Professor Emeritus, University of Kansas.
21
 Sex without consent
isn’t sex.It’s rape.
WHAT IS CONSENT?
• Consent is voluntary, mutual, and can be withdrawn at any
time. CHECK OUT THESE
• Past consent does not mean current or future consent. EXPLANATIONS OF
• There is no consent when there is force, intimidation, or CONSENT:
coercion.
• There is no consent if a person is mentally or physically • “How Society Treats
incapacitated or impaired because one cannot understand Consent” comic strip
the fact, nature, or extent of the sexual situation.
• Consent is as Simple as
LEARN Tea

• CONSENT NEEDS TO BE CLEAR. Consent is more than not • NotAlone.gov Sample

hearing the word “no.” A partner saying nothing is not the Language and Definitions
same as a partner saying “yes.” Don’t rely on body language, of Prohibited Conduct
past sexual interactions, or any other nonverbal cues. Never for a School’s Sexual
assume you have consent. Always be sure you have consent Misconduct Policy
by asking.

• DRUGS AND ALCOHOL IMPACT DECISION-MAKING AND

BLUR CONSENT. When drugs, such as alcohol, are involved,
clear consent is not possible. A person who is intoxicated or
impaired cannot give consent.

• CONSENT CAN BE FUN. Consent does not have to be

something that “ruins the mood.” In fact, clear and
enthusiastic consent can enhance sexual interactions. Not only
does it allow one to know that their partner is comfortable with
the interaction, it also lets both partners clearly express what
they want.

• CONSENT IS SPECIFIC. Justbecause someoneconsentsto one

set of actions and activities does not mean consent has been
given for other sexual acts. Similarly, if a partner has given
consent to sexual activity in the past, this does not apply to
current or future interactions. Consent can initially be given
and later be withdrawn.

WHAT IS CONSENT? Discussion Guide 1

• CONSENT IS FREELYGIVEN AND THERE IS NO FEAR OR
PRESSURE INVOLVED. Consent is when there is a mutual
agreement for sexual activity without any coercion or
persuasion involved. When someone says no that does not
mean that they can be convinced or pressured to change
their mind. Consent must be given freely by each individual
involved.

REFLECT
• HOW DO YOU ASK FOR CONSENT? Don’t assume a partner is
OK with what you want to do. Always ask them. Be direct. If
you are unsure whether you have their consent, ask again.

• HOW DO YOU COMMUNICATE YOUR NEEDS? Don’t be afraid

to talk about sex and communicate your boundaries, wants,
and needs. Encourage your partner to do the same.

• WHERE DOES CONSENT FIT? Consent does not have

to be something that interrupts sex; it can be a part of
sex. Checking in with your partner throughout sexual
experiences can be a great way to build intimacy and
understand your partner’s needs.

DISCUSSION
Practicing consent means making sure everyone is on the same
page when hooking up. These sample questions can be used to
start a dialogue on consent.

• Getting consent means asking for permission. What activities

require consent?
• Whose responsibility is it to ask for consent? Who can give
and get consent?
• How often do you need to ask for consent?
• What happens if someone changes theirmind?
• How does consent work if you’re already in a relationship?
• What if you’ve had sex before?
• Explain how the use of drugs or alcohol impacts someone’s
ability to give consent.
• What are different ways someone can communicate
boundaries?
• How can communication make hooking up better? How
comfortable are you talking about sex?
• Is there consent if there is any threat, pressure, or coercion
involved?

If you’ve experienced sexual assault, please visit

notalone.gov for resources.

WHAT IS CONSENT? Discussion Guide 2

 WHAT IS CAMPUS SEXUAL
VIOLENCE?
It’s clear the epidemic of sexual assault on college campuses
impacts all of us. Preventing sexual violence on campus takes
more than one student, staff member, professor, administrator,
team, club, office, or department. It takes all of us working
together. Everyone can play a role in prevention by creating a
culture of safety, equality, and respect on campus.

WHAT IS SEXUAL VIOLENCE?

Sexual violence occurs when someone is forced or coerced
into unwanted sexual activity without agreeing or consenting.
Consent initially can be given and later withdrawn. Sexual
violence is a crime that comes in many forms, including forced
intercourse, sexual contact or touching, sexual harassment,
sexual exploitation, and exposure orvoyeurism.

Sexual violence is never the victim’s fault. It does not matter

what the victim is wearing or doing, whether the victim has
been drinking, or what type of relationship the victim has with
the person who is sexually abusingthem.

There are many reasons people choose to not consent, and there
are times when they do not have the capacity or ability. Reasons
someone might not be able to consent include:
• fear
• being underage
• having illness or disability
• incapacitation due to alcohol and otherdrugs

SEXUAL VIOLENCE ON CAMPUS IS A PROBLEM

• One in five women have been a victim of completed or
attempted sexual assault while in college. (Washington Post/
Kaiser Family Foundation 2015)
• One in 16 men have been a victim of sexual assault during
college. (Washington Post/Kaiser Family Foundation 2015)
• Nearly two-thirds of college students experiencesexual
harassment (Hill & Silva, 2005)
• Among college women, nine out of 10 victims of rape and
sexual assault knew the person who assaulted them (Fisher,
Cullen, & Turner, 2000)
• More than 90% of sexual assault victims on college campuses
do not report the assault (Fisher et al., 2000)
• 40% of colleges and universities reported not investigating
a single sexual assault in the previous five years (U.S. Senate
Subcommittee, 2014)

WHAT IS CONSENT? Discussion Guide 3

 PREVENTION IS POSSIBLE
Prevention happens when people take action to promote
safety, respect, and equality. National initiatives are under way,
including the White House Task Force to Protect Students From
Sexual Assault and the It’s On Us campaign, to change cultural
norms and engage the campus community in prevention
(White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual
Assault, 2014). National Sexual Violence Resource Center
PreventConnect and partners in the field are working with
campuses, private and public institutions, law enforcement,
government, and communities to help everyone see their role in
preventing sexual violence.

TAKE ACTION
STUDENTS. Students are the core of every campus community.
Together, they can be the most powerful advocates for changing
campus culture, promoting safety and respect, and preventing
sexual violence.

PARENTS. Students rely on parents for guidance. Parents can

have a conversation about sexual assault with their child before
they leave for college. Be sure to address questions of consent
and on-campus resources.

FACULTY. Faculty from every academic discipline can model

healthy, respectful attitudes and behaviors in their roles as
educators, scholars, mentors, and colleagues.

ADMINISTRATION. As leaders and policymakers, campus

administrators play an important role in challenging attitudes
and beliefs that support sexual violence and establish an
environment of equality and respect.

ATHLETICS. As highly visible and respected members of

campus communities, athletes and coaches can play a leadership
role by publically speaking out about changing campus culture
and preventing sexual violence.

CAMPUS LAW ENFORCEMENT & SECURITY. By responding

supportively to victims, investigating reports, and strongly
conveying that sexual violence will not be tolerated, campus law
enforcement and security officers play a vital role in creating a
safe campus environment and preventing sexualviolence.

GREEK LIFE. Fraternities and sororities are the center of social

life for many students, and can be leaders in shaping campus
culture and preventing sexual violence.

WHAT IS CONSENT? Discussion Guide 4

 COMMUNITY. Community-based resources – including local
rape crisis centers, health organizations, cultural centers, and
faith communities – contribute valuable perspectives and
expertise in preventing and responding to sexual violence on
campus.

LEARN MORE
• National Sexual Violence Resource Center: nsvrc.org
• PreventConnect: preventconnect.org
• Clery Center for Security on Campus:clerycenter.org
• It’s On Us: ItsOnUs.org
• Not Alone: notalone.gov
• Know Your IX: knowyourix.org
• SAFER (Students Active For Ending Rape): safercampus.org
• American College Health Association: acha.org
• Victim Rights Law Center: victimrights.org
• Culture of Respect: cultureofrespect.org
• End Rape on Campus:endrapeoncampus.org

REFERENCES
Campus Sexual Violence Elimination (SaVE) Act. Pub. U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights.
L. No. 113-4, § 304, 127 Stat. 89 (2013). Retrieved from (1998). Title IX and sex discrimination. Retrieved from
http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-113publ4/pdf/ the U.S. Department of Education: http://www2.ed.gov/
PLAW-113publ4.pdf about/offices/list/ocr/docs/tix_dis.html

Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T.,, & Turner, M. G. (2000). The U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Financial & Contracting
sexual victimization of college women. Retrieved from Oversight Majority Staff. (2014). Sexual violence on
the National Criminal Justice Reference Service: campus: How too many institutions of higher education
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/182369.pdf are failing to protect students. Retrieved from http://
www.mccaskill.senate.gov/SurveyReportwithAppendix.
Hill, C., & Silva, E. (2005). Drawing the line: Sexual pdf
harassment on campus. Retrieved from the American
Association of University Women: http://www.aauw. Washington Post. (2015). Washington Post-Kaiser Fam-
org/files/2013/02/drawing-the-line-sexual-harass- ily Foundation Survey of College Students on Sexual
ment-on-campus.pdf Assault. Retrieved from http://apps.washingtonpost.
com/g/page/national/washington-post-kaiser-fami-
Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and ly-foundation-survey-of-college-students-on-sexual-as-
Campus Crime Statistics Act (20 USC § 1092(f)) (2008). sault/1726/
Retrieved from http://clerycenter.org/jeanne-clery-act
White House Task Force to Protect Students From
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C., Warner, T., Fisher, B., & Mar- Sexual Assault. (2014). Not alone: The first report of
tin, S. (2007). The campus sexual assault (CSA) study: the White House Task Force to Protect Students From
Final report. Retrieved from the National Criminal Jus- Sexual Assault. Retrieved from https://www.notalone.
tice Reference Service: http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ gov/assets/report.pdf
nij/grants/221153.pdf

WHAT IS CONSENT? Discussion Guide 5

The totality of oneself as a sexual
being, including positive and
negative concepts and feelings.

This encompasses sexual

health, sexual orientation,
gender identity and expression
and values around sexuality.
 Sexual development is a
lifelong process that starts at
the moment of conception.
It can be predicted as part of the
human development but not
everyone is expected to have the
same pattern of changes or the
pacing.
 ’

Freud believed that every

child goes through a
sequence of developmental
stages and that child’s
experience during these
stages determine adult
personality characteristics
 : ORAL STAGE
MOUTH
ORAL INCORPORATIVE/
ORAL AGRESSIVE

Frustration – fed on a Schedule-fed: tight lipped

minimal schedule to meet people who eat only for
nutritional requirements nourishment

Overindulgence – fed at Demand-fed: gives rise to

any time the child wants oral pleasures
 : ANAL STAGE
ANUS
ANAL-RETENTIVE
ANAL-EXPULSIVE

Frustration – parents Controlling: stringent,

demand exacting selective of your friends,
control of bowel habits orderly, tidy
Overindulgence – parents Uncontrolled: gullible, lax,
allow child freedom or is disorganized, careless,
lenient in bowel messy
 : PHALLIC STAGE
GENITALS
OEDIPUS & ELECTRA
COMPLEX

Heterosexualizing Boys will grow up seeking a

interactions. woman like his mother.
Girl will grow up wanting to
Jealousy develops. have a male child.
Problems with parent- Homosexuality if
identification. identifications are reversed.
 : LATENCY
NONE
NONE

Reduction of sexuality in Reality principle and learning

a child. of skills.
 : GENITAL
WHOLE BODY
MATING, DATING and
SOCIAL INTERACTION

Sublimate sexual energy

Sexual instincts and
conflicts Deliquency
Attraction to mystical
Death instincts philosophies and other etc.
Life instincts IT’S NORMAL!
 Puberty is the period of life when the reproductive organs grow
to their adult size and become functional under the influence
of rising levels of gonadal hormones (testosterone in males
and estrogen in females)
Directly related to reproductive NOT directly related to reproductive
organs and external genitalia organs and external genitalia

Penis and scrotum Facial hair and deeper

growth voice

Ovary, uterus, vagina, Enlarged breasts and

clitoris & labia growth hips
 DESIRE PHASE

AROUSAL STAGE
RESOLUTION PHASE

ORGASM PHASE
PLATEAU PHASE
 Sexuality is about our sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions
and behaviours towards other people.
We can find other people physically, sexually or emotionally attractive, and all those things
are a part of our sexuality.
 Sensuality

Sexual
Sexualization

Human
Intimacy

Sexuality
Reproduction
Sexual
and Sexual
Heath Identity
 Awareness and feeling about your own body and other
people's bodies, especially the body of a sexual partner.

Body image
Satisfying skin hunger
Experiencing pleasure
Feelings of attraction for another person
Fantasy
ability to be emotionally close to another human
being and to accept closeness in return

Liking or loving another person

(share and care)
Emotional risk-taking
(vulnerability)
Sexual identity is a person's understanding of who she/he is
sexually, including the sense of being male or of being female.

3 INTERLOCKING PIECES
Gender identity
Gender role
Sexual Orientation
These are a person's capacity to reproduce and the behaviors
and attitudes that make sexual relationships healthy and
enjoyable.

Factual information about

reproduction
Feelings and attitudes
Sexual intercourse
Contraceptive information
Aspect of sexuality in which people behave sexually to influence,
manipulate, or control other people
Often called the "shadowy" side of human sexuality

Flirting
Seduction
Sexual harassment
Rape
Incest
WHY DO WE FALL IN LOVE?
Testosterone Dopamine Oxytocin
Estrogen Norepinephrine Vasopressin
Serotonin
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Material Self

Introduction to the Material Self

MATERIAL SELF
A man’s self is the sum total of what he can call his (James, 1980)

CHAPTER X, The Consciousness of Self (A) THE EMPIRICAL SELF OR ME, The Principles of Psychology (JAMES, 1890)

The body is the innermost part of the material Self in each of us; and certain parts of the body seem more intimately ours than the rest.

The clothes come next. The old saying that the human person is composed of three parts - soul, body and clothes - is more than a joke. We so
appropriate our clothes and identify ourselves with them that there are few of us who, if asked to choose between having a beautiful body clad in
raiment perpetually shabby and unclean, and having an ugly and blemished form always spotlessly attired, would not hesitate a moment before
making a decisive reply.

Next, our immediate family is a part of ourselves. Our father and mother, our wife and babes, are bone of our bone and flesh of our flesh. When
they die, a part of our very selves is gone. If they do anything wrong, it is our shame. If they are insulted, our anger flashes forth as readily as if
we stood in their place.

Our home comes next. Its scenes are part of our life; its aspects awaken the tenderest feelings of affection; and we do not easily forgive the
stranger who, in visiting it, finds fault with its arrangements or treats it with contempt. All these different things are the objects of instinctive
preferences coupled with the most important practical interests of life. We all have a blind impulse to watch over our body, to deck it with clothing
of [p. 293] an ornamental sort, to cherish parents, wife and babes, and to find for ourselves a home of our own which we may live in and
'improve.'
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Material Self

Evideas behind the Idea that Money changes People

EVIDENCES BEHIND THE IDEA THAT MONEY TRULY CAN CHANGE PEOPLE
Lifted from Understanding the Self by Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A., Tunac, R. and Borja, E. (2018)

Psychologists who study the impact of wealth and inequality on human behavior have found that money can powerfully influence our thoughts and actions in ways that
we’re often not aware of, no matter what our circumstances are (Greogoire, 2014)

Curtis (2017) manifested that cash can have serious bearing on one’s belief regarding the way a person views himself/herself. The following are evidences of such idea.

A. Social and Business Value

By recognizing a task’s social value a person sees it as a worthy investment of time and a part of his/her social duty, and he/she is usually happy to help out. When money is
offered as the motivation, however, people then sat thinking less of the social aspect and more about the business value.

For example, if a relative asked you to baby-sit their kids or tend the elderly for few hours, you may be more motivated to do so when you will receive more in exchange of
your service. You may even be more enthusiastic the next time around. However, if you will be paid less or think that you will not gain from the activity, then you are more
likely to give alibis and excuses.

B. Self Sufficiency and Service

Those who are conscious of money typical strive to be more self-sufficient than those for whom money isn’t a priority. In a research that was conducted, it was found that
when given a very difficult and even impossible task, with instructions that help was available, it was the money-related group that seems the most intent on getting the job
done alone, even when it was not possible to finish the task solo. It only means that money-conscious individuals are more self-sufficient than their peers, particularly when
money is made the focus.

C. Self-view
The wealthiest people are those with the deepest sense of class essentialism – the idea that differences between classes are based upon identity and genetics, rather than
circumstance. Poor people tend to believe that social class was not related to genes, that essentially, anyone can be rich and anyone can be poor. Rich people were more
likely to believe that wealth was part of genes and identity, that they were entitled to wealth based upon their personal circumstances and actions. Wealthy people also
believe that more or less, life is fair and people mostly get what they deserve.

D. Ethics
Those who perceive themselves to be in a higher class were most likely to engage in unethical behaviour, particularly when a symbol of wealth is introduced. That is, people
who have more tendencies to break the law. e.g. cutting off a pedestrian when in a luxury car.

Piff (2012) also found in his research a phenomenon he labelled as self-interest maximization. It is the idea that suggests that those who have the most money or occupy
higher classes are more likely to take a “what’s in it for me?” attitude. They actively work toward the most benefit for themselves.

E. Addiction
Many addictions begin because a person gets a positive response from a certain type of behaviour. Whether it’s a happy feeling that one gets from shopping or a thrill that
comes from gambling, actively seeking out that behaviour again and again for the same outcome can trigger addiction.

Behavioral or process addiction – a compulsive behavior not motivated by dependency on an addictive substance, but rather by the process that leads to a seemingly
positive outcome.

IMPULSIVE BUYING COMPULSIVE BUYING

This refers to a sudden and powerful urge in the consumer to buy immediately. It occurs when desire for a This is characterized by an excessive preoccupation or poor impulse control with shopping, with adverse
product or brand outweighs one's willpower to resist. consequences, like marital conflict and financial problems.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Material Self

Money and Well-being

MONEY AND WELL-BEING
Materialism as a philosophy is held by those who maintain that existence is explainable solely in material terms, with no accounting of spirit or consciousness.
Individuals who hold to this belief see the universe as a huge device held together by pieces of matter functioning in subjection to naturalistic laws.
(https://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/materialism.htm)

Cycle of work and spend - work more to buy more. The level of consumption is set mainly by people’s choices about how much to work, and therefore how
much income to earn

CORRELATES OF MATERIALISM
Lifted from Understanding the Self: Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E., Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018)

1. Materialism and happiness reportedly do not go well together as it was shown that people who value possessions and material wealth over other more
significant life goals are said to be less happy and are more prone to depression.
2. Materialism and self-esteem show an inverted relationship.
3. Materialism and financial stability show an inverted relationship.
4. Materialism and well-being manifest opposite relationship as individuals practicing this principle tend to isolate themselves from the significant others as they
continue try to derive gratification from amassing objects rather than interacting with the people around them.
5. Materialism and self-concept prove how insecurity motivates people to work so hard for material possessions as the same wealth becomes their source of
security.
6. Materialism and lack of engagement mean losing one’s ability to empathize with others as they become callous to other people’s needs.

ACCORDING TO GREGOIRE (2017) MATERIALISM MAKES PEOPLE UNHAPPY FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:

1. Consumer culture may be harming individual well-being.

Allegedly those who pursue more wealth and greater material possessions are less satisfied as they experience less positive emotions.

2. Materialistic values are linked to Type-A behaviour.

Those who are highly ambitious are highly competitive and materialistic. These are traits of a Type-A personality.

3. Money really cannot buy you happiness.

Several studies have shown that wealthy people are highly susceptible to depression.
Researches have also shown that money is not exactly what brings about the dissatisfaction and the unhappiness but the extreme desire to earn more.

4. Materialism could ruin your relationship.

Materialistic values result to low-quality relationships and disconnectedness.

5. Consumer cultures may breed narcissistic personalities.

Narcissist are highly arrogant as they are deeply concerned with inadequacy. They work a lot for power and prestige to cover up their perceived emptiness and low
self-worth. All these sentiments demand validation form others through praises, compliments and approval.

6. Consumerism is fuelled by insecurity.

Research shows that those who are extremely doubtful of their self-worth are highly insecure and thus have the tendency to be more materialistic.
Consumerism capitalizes on insecurity so their products and services will sell and be highly demanded.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Material Self

The Art of Buying: Types of Consumers

THE ART OF BUYING: COMING TO TERMS WITH MONEY AND MATERIALISM
Tatzel, M (2003), The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materialism, Journal of Happiness Studies 420-429

ABSTRACT. Money and possessions hold strong attractions, but being driven to acquire them in order to enhance one’s social standing is associated with lowered
well-being. Literatures on money and happiness, materialism, and cultural mediators are reviewed. Consumer well-being is associated with being neither very tight
nor very loose with money, with having relatively low financial aspirations, and with being low in materialism. Price-related behaviors – whether to spend low, spend
high, or attempt to maximize value – are ways of responding to economic outlay vis-a-vis material wants, and these “strategies” offer a window into broader consumer
lifestyles: the Value Seeker type is tight with money and materialistic; the Big Spender is loose with money and materialistic; the Non-Spender is tight with money and
not materialistic; and the Experiencer is loose with money and not materialistic. Each of these types is described in terms of the potentials for well-being as well as the
risks. Intrinsic motivation emerges as a key to well-being.

TIGHT WITH MONEY LOOSE WITH MONEY

Value seeker Big spender

Bargain hunter Exhibitionist

Hold possessions Replace possessions

HIGH MATERIALISM
Enjoy price comparison shopping Price-quality schema

Cool involvement Trend conscious

Save-to-spend Debt prone

Non-spender
Experiencer
Saver
Spend for recreation, self-development
LOW MATERIALISM Ascetic lifestyle
and services
Price averse
Generous
Quality less important

Here is an excerpt from Tatzel, M (2003), The Art of Buying: Coming to Terms with Money and Materialism, Journal of Happiness Studies 420-429

Value Seeker: Tight with Money and Materialistic

Given the combination of high materialism and tight with money, we might expect the Value Seeker to be especially unhappy – anxious about money, other directed,
dissatisfied, and in conflict between material desires and reluctance to spend.
• Value Seekers enjoy price comparison shopping, through which they derive knowledge and hedonic benefits (Mamorstein et al., 1992).
• This is a “smart shopper” who can outwit the retailer and thus save money by paying less than the going price (Mano and Elliott, 1997).
• Good value can be thought of as the lowest price for a given level of quality (Bei and Heslin, 1997). Bargain hunters can ply their skills at virtually all points along
the quality continuum, even for luxury goods.
• Instead of the “hot” materialism of “I must have it now”, they can wait for the synchrony of the right product at the right price. The pleasure of delayed acquisition is
sweetened by the triumph of the good buy.
• A preference for saving for expensive purchases (“save-to-spend”), rather than borrowing, is also a form of delayed gratification.
• The Value Seeker should be debt averse. Debt is a form of loss of control over money. Not only has one not held on to money (as the tight-with-money prefer to do),
not only has one spent what one has, one has also spent what one does not have. Furthermore, paying interest on a loan is a “waste” of money for which one gets
nothing (no thing) in return.
• Many traits of the Value Seeker can support well-being: this is a competent consumer, who enjoys shopping, enjoys saving money, and enjoys possessions.
• Yet being tight with money and materialistic are both associated with lowered well-being. The risks to well-being for this type come from being extreme in these
traits plus having strong financial aspirations. The Value Seeker could become a fretful individual, who feels poor, agonizes over purchases, and is a compulsive
bargain hunter.
Big Spender: Loose with Money and Materialistic
The Big Spender enjoys spending money and displaying high status possessions. The price-seeking Big Spender feels successful with conspicuously expensive
purchases. They have attraction to spending, the belief that expensive things are better, and prestige-seeking, with its overtones of competitiveness.
• The Big Spender is concerned with consuming in a showy manner. Thus possessions that hold value may be of less interest, and money would flow into renewable
possessions, like cars, and into replacing outdated possessions, such as furniture. The Big Spender wants the latest and the best.
• The Big Spender lifestyle is especially treacherous for those with limited means. Low inhibitions about spending can lead to buying on credit, and debt in itself is
detrimental to well-being (Ahuvia and Friedman, 1998). If living within one’s means requires buying a used car, the trend-conscious Big Spender may instead lease an
outsized sport utility vehicle, even if it means stretching credit to the limit.
• The Big Spender illustrates what is wrong with consumer culture: in the elusive quest for the “good life”, the driven consumer overworks (Schor, 1992), overspends
(Schor, 1998), and goes into debt in order to own too many possessions (Dominguez and Robin, 1992).
• Making one’s possessions visible to others and being fashionable both be speak sociability. In its positive aspect, we can find in the Big Spender a healthy
extraversion, even though the need for admiration hints at the social anxiety and competitiveness that motivate materialism.
• Being overly loose with money and highly materialistic, however, are both risk factors for well-being. So is strong financial motivation, particularly for these ends,
and it is likely that the Big Spender will need lots of money to support a lifestyle of free spending and endless material wants or else he will be at risk for compulsive
spending, social anxiety, guilt, low self-esteem, and dissatisfaction with life.

Non-Spender: Tight with Money and Not Materialistic

The Non-Spender is unmoved by the temptations of materialism.
• There is anxiety over parting with money and the fear over being cheated, and on the other hand there is the enjoyment of holding money, tracking it, and perhaps
watching it grow.
• The Non-Spender is probably ill-at-ease in the marketplace and relatively unskilled. He or she suspects that prices do not reflect quality, and this suspicion
strengthens the resolve to buy “low” and spend as little as possible (Rao and Sieben, 1992).
• Not spending is an adaptation to being poor, a strategy for survival in constrained circumstances. In less constrained circumstances, such self-restraint can be a route
to financial independence and may even be the road to riches. The “millionaire next door” (Stanley and Danko, 1996) lives modestly while amassing a fortune through
scrimping, saving and investing.
• The Non-Spender, free from the lures of consumer culture and free from the needs for social approval that induce consumer conformity, may be particularly
individualistic, self-reliant, and self-controlled.
• The Non-Spender is also prone to the drawbacks of being overly tight with money – worried, suspicious, stingy, withholding. Although low materialism is mostly a
positive force for well-being, one can imagine that a life of severe material denial would be bleak and unstimulating with little to nourish growth. If the motive to hoard
money supercedes other life values, there would be little to counter the barrenness.

The Experiencer: Loose with Money and Not Materialistic

The Experiencer is someone who is relaxed about spending money and lacks material motives, and so likely to spend on the transitory intangibles that enhance life.
• Spending for experience can take various forms.

Activities is one category. Examples include recreation, travel, self-improvement workshops, entertainment.
Another category is service, the willingness to pay to have someone tend to one’s needs. Dining at good restaurants and shopping at boutiques and specialty
 stores can provide the personal attention and pleasant surroundings that are hard to come by in serve-yourself supermarkets and in stark, impersonal discount
stores.

• When money is spent on material objects, the value for the Experiencer lies more in using the possessions than in showcasing them (Holt, 1995).
• It seems that of all the types, the Experiencer, who spends for personal growth and pleasure and is low in materialism, is the most attuned to intrinsic motivation and
is therefore the most likely to enjoy wellbeing. Yet for the Experiencer, too, there are risk factors, and one lies in the motive when spending for experience. Just as
objects can satisfy intrinsic or extrinsic motives, so can experiences.

Tourism is one such example: it can be a way of authentically participating in the spirit of other cultures, or it can be a source of ego gratification, especially
when the tourist destination has been fashioned so as to flatter the tourist (MacCannell, 2002). Is the motive for travel to savor the experience or to boast about
having been to the in-spots and thereby enhance one’s social standing? When experiences are valued as status symbols (and certainly one can spend
conspicuously for experiences as well as for things), the Experiencer has moved toward the Big Spender type.

• A risk factor is being overly loose with money. A lack of concern about spending, or a lack of self-control, can eventuate in the money problems and debt associated
with compulsive spending. When a large inflow of money is required in order to feed the stream of spending, the pressure to acquire more money, which can strengthen
financial drives, can have negative consequences for well-being.

Let us consider how the same consumer choice may be assessed in the four money worlds. Given a choice between replacing old, shabby furniture and going on
vacation, the Value Seeker might shop around for furniture sales or else refurbish the old furniture, the Big Spender might upgrade and update the furniture in the
latest style, the Non-Spender might neither go on a vacation nor do anything about the furniture, and the Experiencer is likely to opt for the vacation and make do with
the shabby furniture for a while longer.

VARIOUS WAY TO APPRECIATE OUR OWN UNIQUENESS AND BE GENUINELY JOYOUS ABOUT IT.
Lifted from Understanding the Self: Developing Life Skills by Magalona, E., Sadsad, E., and Cruz, E (2018)
1. Learn to share your blessings no matter how simple it is.
2. Improve your self-esteem and self-worth by engaging in worthwhile activities.
3. Learn to communicate and relate with people around you.
4. Take time to appreciate the beauty of life and God’s creations.
5. Be grateful to those who compliment you by returning the favour.
6. Focus on your strengths and not on your flaws.
7. Stop projecting on media accounts about what you have and others do not.
8. Learn to let go of things that are not significantly needed,
9. Develop a mantra to counter the negativities entering your thoughts.
10. Stop brewing on negativities and on hurtful past. Focus on the future and what you can do to be productive and happy.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Material Self

The Extended Self

SHAPING THE WAY WE SEE OURSELVES: The Roles of Consumer Culture on Our Sense of Self and Identity Lifted from Understanding the Self by
Villafuerte, S., Quilope, A., Tunac, R. and Borja, E. (2018)

POSSESSIONS AND THE EXTENDED SELF

If possessions are viewed as part of the self, it follows that an unintentional loss of possessions should be regarded as loss or lessening of self

Example: In situations that deliberately such as mental hospitals, prisons, concentration camps or military training camps, the firsts step in receiving members is to
systematically deprive them of all personal possessions including clothing, money or even names. Their bodies may be standardized to some degree (e.g. military
haircuts, standard wardrobe) and their behaviors and conversations may be strictly prohibited. The result of this systematic substitution of standardize “identity kits”
for former possessions is an elimination of uniqueness (Snyder and Fromkin, 1981) and a corresponding and often traumatic lessening of the individual’s sense of self.

Another instance of non-voluntary loss of possession that bring about a diminished sense of self is when possessions are lost due to theft or casualty. Rosenblatt, Walsh
and Jackson (1976) suggest that a process of grief and mourning may follow the discovery of theft just as one might grieve and mourn the death of a loved one who

had been part of one’s life.

Handbag snatching can produce not only a financial but also emotional, long term effects on victims.
Losing photographs of loved ones that are often carried in a purse may cause victims sense of security impaired
Those who lost possessions to a natural disasters went through a process of grief similar to that of losing a loved one.

SPECIAL CASES OF EXTENDED SELF

1. Collections (I shop, therefore, I am)
a. Humans and animals once primarily assemble collections of necessities for future security, but today humans more often assemble collection of non-necessities for
distinction and self-definition. The cultivation of a collection is a purposeful self-defining act. Collecting has become a significant activity in our consumer society as it
has become more widely affordable through the discretionary time and money available to the general population rather than just to the wealthy elite (Mason, 1981)
b. Many collectors who are inhibited and uncomfortable in social interaction, surround themselves with favoured objects upon which they project human-like qualities.
They practically talk to these objects; they find comfort in being with them and regard them as friends (Goldberg & Lewis, 1978). Note that not all collectors are
inhibited and uncomfortable in social interaction.
c. Collections may be seen as transition objects or security blankets for adults.

2. Pets
a. Pets are regarded as family members (Cain, 1985; Friedman & Thomas, 1985 etc).
b. It is significant that we name our pets, feed them, sleep and play with them, and mourn their death (Hickrod & Schmitt 1982; Meer 1984)
c. In some cases, the mourning that comes with the death of the pet is similar to the loss of a home or the loss of a limb (Carmack, 1985; Cowles; 1985 & Keddie 1977)
d. Pets are so instrumental to self-identity that they are often useful as transition objects (surrogate parents) for children and as surrogate children for adults (Levinson,
1972; Robin & Bensel, 1985)
3. Body Parts
a. In psychology, cathexis is defined as the process of allocation of mental or emotional energy to a person, object, or idea. Body cathexis is defined as the degree of
satisfaction reported by an individual for the parts of his body. (Jourard and Secord, 1955). This refers to the feelings (positive or negative) one feels towards his own
body. When a body a body is highly cathected, there is greater use of grooming products to care for this part of the body.
b. Since we are permanently attached to out body parts, these body parts are expected to be more strongly cathected than material possessions that can be more easily
acquired and discarded. And since body parts are normally central to conceptions of self, the loss of body parts is tantamount to losing one’s identity and one’s very
being. Indeed the loss of limb is often viewed by those from whom it has been severed in just this way.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

Introduction to the Spiritual Self

In search of his true identity, man can never do away from considering his spiritual well-being. For one thing, he is composed of both body and soul.
The body points to his relationship with the material world and the soul his relationship with the spiritual world, which is the transcendental dimension of life.
Man's spirituality is the focus of our discussion in this section.

In the search for meaning in life, one of the major concerns is the development of a balanced spirituality of the human being which integrates well with
his/her psychological maturation. This psycho-spiritual integration or development can be of help in bringing about social transformation since it exposes the
individual to different situations or cases that awaken in him/her the desire to make a difference in his/her life as he/she searches for the meaning of his/her
life.

Such integration leads to a better understanding of oneself with the questions: Who am I? What are my big aims in life? How clear are they? How truly
Christian am I? It seeks answers to the basic existential questions in life. It leads to self-introspection, a journey into the core of the human being.

We are not human beings having a spiritual experience. We are spiritual beings having a human experience.
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

SPIRITUAL SELF

Spiritual self is who we are at our core. It is more permanent than the other selves -material self and social self. The spiritual self is our
subjective and most intimate self. It is the aspect of self which develops a certain level of spirituality which is deemed as man's way of seeking as well
as expressing the meaning and purpose of his life. It speaks of the quality of one's relationships - with God, self, others, institutions and God's
entire creation, marked by respect, forgiveness, generous service and prayer. It is showing great refinement or high level of Christian maturity and concern
with the higher things in life such as the Sacred or the Divine. This spirituality is specified more concretely in deepening the faith. Spirituality leads man to a
deeper communion with the Divine. It is a path of direct and personal connection with the Divine. It embraces all faiths, social and political ideologies. It aids
persons in spiritual, emotional or physical distress, crisis or discomfort as well as those seeking to make a significant change in their lives through self-
awareness. This can be a healing process that leads to personal development.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

The Concept of Spirituality

Religion and spirituality are often mistakenly understood as synonymous terms. Although they have many similarities and there is a relationship
between the two, there are differences between religion and spirituality.

Religion: By definition, religion is a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and practices; the service and worship of
God or the supernatural.

Spirituality: Spirituality, on the other hand, connotes an experience of connection to something larger than you; living everyday life in a reverent and
sacred manner. Or as Christina Puchalski, MD (leader in trying to incorporate spirituality into healthcare), puts it, “Spirituality is the aspect of humanity that
refers to the way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to others, to
nature, and to the significant or sacred."

Religion vs. Spirituality: What Is the Difference?

from Brady(2020)

RELIGION SPIRITUALITY

Subjective Experience. Spirituality is an inward journey that involves a shift in awareness

Objective Experience. There is usually a greater focus on the externals (Houses of
rather than some form of external activity. As such, spirituality is much more about inner
worship, books of scripture, eternal rituals and observances)
understanding than outer worship.

Organization. It is a structured, frequently rule-based construct that to some degree Formless. Spirituality though, breaks free from the restrictions and rigid structure
governs the behavior of its members. Moral rules, laws, and doctrines, as well as specific sometimes associated with traditional religion. The spiritual aspirant recognizes that he or
codes and criteria, create the organized structure that contains the religion’s specific belief she is on a “pathless path” of self-discovery. They are following not a set of external rules,
system. but their own inner call to spirit.

Evolutionary Approach. Spirituality often favors an evolutionary mentality. This refers to

Traditional Approach. Religions are by nature often deeply rooted in tradition, ritual,
both a more flexible and adaptive mindset toward core teachings of the great wisdom
creed, and doctrine. Religious institutions conservatively guard their practices and values,
traditions but also reflects the understanding that spiritual growth is an evolutionary
holding rigidly to the past and the original interpretations of the founder’s teachings.
process. Spirituality embraces change and the evolution of consciousness.

Exclusive. Traditional religious beliefs, sometimes based upon rigid interpretations of key Inclusive. Spirituality makes no such distinctions. Instead, it favors an inclusive approach.
teachings, can create an exclusive worldview that isolates those who may not share their In the recognition that pure spirit is a unifying force, no one is left out. You are part of the
views or interpretations. Sadly, this religious “in-group” mentality can be used to justify the universal hologram, all gods and goddesses in disguise. In other words, from a spiritual
exclusion of minorities or those deemed unworthy of God’s favor. perspective, no one has a monopoly on the truth. All are welcome in God’s eyes.

Belief. At its core, religion is about faith. That is to say, belief in something based upon Spiritual Experience. Spirituality doesn’t dismiss faith; however, it often leans more
unconditional acceptance of the religion’s teachings. Through religion, you are taught to heavily on direct experience of the soul or divinity. Spiritual practices such as meditation,
have faith in God or the scriptures as being the infallible and ultimate truth of reality. yoga, silence, and contemplation allow you to make conscious contact with more expanded
Acceptance and surrender to the divine are taught as the path that leads to ultimate states of consciousness, thus helping to experientially validate the teachings rather than
salvation. accepting them on faith alone. You know something because you have tasted the
experience yourself and have allowed it to resonate, as opposed to taking the word of
another.

As Giovanni (n.d) would present it:

Religion asks you to believe. Spirituality asks you to look.

 Religion has dogmas. Spirituality has wisdom teachings.

Religion wants obedience. Spirituality wants experimentation.

Religion speaks of sin and hell. Spirituality speaks of karma.

Religion wants to comfort you. Spirituality wants to liberate you.

Religion is external. Spirituality is internal.

Religion is the form. Spirituality is the essence.

Religion wants to convert you. Spirituality wants to inspire you.

Religion is an institution. Spirituality is a journey.

Spirituality in Higher Education

The study reported in the book Cultivating the Spirit: How College Can Enhance Students' Inner Lives authored by Dr. Helen Astin, Dr. Alexander
Astin, and Dr. Jennifer Lindholm of UCLA surveyed (in 2004) more than 112,000 freshmen as they enrolled in 236 public and private (religiously affiliated and
non-religiously affiliated) colleges and universities, and then followed up (in 2007) 14,527 of these students (at 136 institutions) as they were completing their
junior year. Here are the findings:

They found religious engagement among students declines somewhat during college, but their spirituality shows substantial growth. Students
become more caring, more tolerant, more connected with others, and more actively engaged in a spiritual quest.
Also found spiritual growth enhances academic performance, psychological well-being, leadership development, and satisfaction with college.
The study also identified a number of college activities that contribute to students' spiritual growth. Some of these--study abroad, interdisciplinary
studies, and service learning--appear to be effective because they expose students to new and diverse people, cultures, and ideas.
Spiritual development is also enhanced if students engage in "inner work" through activities such as meditation or self-reflection, or if their
professors actively encourage them to explore questions of meaning and purpose.
Spiritual development is impeded when students engage in activities that distract them from the ordinary experience of campus life--activities such as
watching television and playing video games.

Spiritual Questions to Ponder

1. Who are the most important people in my life?

2. Where would I like to be in 10 years?
3. How can I avoid a stagnant life?
4. What qualities must I possess to be a good person?
5. Do things happen for a reason?
6. What are the values that guide my life?
7. When do I feel the most alive or real?
8. What gifts can I give of myself to the world?
9. How would I like others to see me?
10. What are my beliefs on life purpose?

Here's a graphic organizer for a simple summary:

SPIRITUALITY
-Where do I find meaning?
- how do I feel connected
-how should I live?

RELIGION
-what practices, rites, or rituals should I follow?
-what is right and wrong?
-What is true and false?

SIMILARITES
-belief, comfort, reflection, ethics, awe
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

The Spirit and the Soul

The interconnection of two important terms in our discussion needs to be considered, which is that of the spirit and the soul. Though these are
sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinctions which need to be recognized.

As mentioned by L. Mercado (1994), "the spirit in the Hebrew language is ruach or pneuma in Greek which means breath (esp. the breath of life).
The spirit is described as the disposition of an individual, a person's habitual attitudes, as man's supernatural power which comes from God. It is
the part of us through which all life and power of God flow. It is the "life-giving part of man" (Jas. 2:26).

Soul on the other hand, is in Hebrew, nephesh or in Greek, psyche, originally meaning 'throat' or 'neck', which means 'human life, the animating
principle of human nature.’ Here, the Hebrew concept of man is holistic, not a trichotomy of body (Mesh), soul, and spirit, but one totality. However, the
Hebrew sees the distinction between the natural and the supernatural, in respect to the soul and spirit.

Both soul and spirit mean life. But soul (nephesh-psyche) stands for natural man, while spirit is the ethical factor which adds the new dimension of
relationship with God. Spirit enables man to serve God and to participate in the supernatural order.

Dy (2020) simplifies this by stating that:

While the soul is the source of our expression through our humanity, it has its limitations and the only way we can experience God is through our
spirit. The soul is merely a channel.

The body is the outer level, followed by the soul and the spirit is the core. The expression of love to God paved the way through the soul. We first
magnify God’s power and grace, and then we express and experience it fully through our spirit.

The function of the spirit is spiritual. The spirit is the only way to connect with God, and we can only use the spirit if we believe in God and
receive Him through our Lord Jesus Christ’s salvation.

The Spirit gives life; the flesh counts for nothing. The words I have spoken to you—they are full of the Spirit and life. (John 6:63)

The term used by the Filipinos for spirit is a loan word, "espirito" or "espiritu", which is in Visayan term, "ginhawa" in Tagalog, "hininga" and in
Ilocano, "anges". The concept of soul is very familiar to the Filipinos. It is the person's emotional and moral nature, where the most private thoughts and
feelings are hidden. In some systems of religious belief, the soul is the spiritual part of a human being that is believed to continue to exist after the body dies.
The soul is also regarded as subject to future reward and punishment. The Bible further speaks of the soul as the innermost aspect of the person which
signifies the spiritual principle in him, "the breath of life". It is because of this spiritual soul that the body becomes alive.

How is the soul perceived by our ancestors?

Below is a translated excerpt from one of the historians of the Philippines, Michael Charlestone Chua:

The ancient Filipinos also had a belief in the soul. For our ancestors, man was made up of two parts — external and internal. The outer is the body
while the inner also has two parts — the life force called "ginahawa" which carries the intestine or liver, and the "kalulwa" which carries the brain which gives
life, mind and human initiative. They believe that souls come out of the body even though they are still alive in the holes of the human body and in the hands
and feet so they protect it by wearing gold. The release of the soul is reflected in the instructions of our elders, do not sleep hungry and the soul may come
out, look for food and be locked in a pot.

Sa mga pintados ng Bisaya, ang kanilang tatoo ang kanilang anting-anting o proteksyon sa kaluluwa.
Larawan mula sa Boxer Codex.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

The Soul according to the Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines

Gaverza (2017) summarized how the soul is viewed in various groups in the Philippines. Below is the list.

IFUGAO – ‘LINNAWA’

The soul (linnawa) of a child floats around in the heavens, awaiting its entry into the human world. During sexual intercourse the soul/spirit enters the female
through the male, resulting in pregnancy. If a woman cannot conceive, shamans conduct sacrifices to see if the couple is compatible. If they are, shamans offer other
sacrifices to enhance fertility.
The soul is believed to continue in existence in the world of its ancestors. In time the soul of the new-dead becomes one of the callading or ancestral spirits. The
callading are considered man’s benefactors.
In some sources (The Soul Book) the Ifugao believe there are two souls, one in the eyes and one in the breath. Illness is the withdrawal of the soul in the eyes.
Death is the withdrawal of the soul in the breath.

IBALOI

The Ibaloi afterlife is populated by ancestral spirits, and explains animal sacrifices. In that spiritual world, when the soul arrives with physical treasures, it receives a
great welcome. An empty-handed soul finds himself the object of scorn. He is unwelcome and unaccepted in his new world and this feeling of insecurity may cause the
spirit to bring evil, disease and even death among his relatives. In the light of all those beliefs, relatives of the dead person bring donation of cash or animals.

ISNEG – ‘KADUWA’

The Isneg believed that dead exist in other world, the Aglalanawan, where the earthly tasks of planting, harvesting and communal living are functions common to
them. The kaduwa, soul, is believed to cross the pond in a ferry piloted by the spirit, Kutaw(A psychopomp). In a bid to please kutaw, who could facilitate the spirit’s entry
to aglalanawan, the appropriate customary death rituals would be the key.

KANKANA-EY – ‘AB-ABIIK’

Ab-Abiik is the spiritual self as oppsed to the physical self (Awak). The Ab-abiik can also apply to inanimate objects such as mountains, trees or rivers. It can also
mean ‘inspiration’ in some contexts.

BIKOL

No one should miss their dinner and go to bed hungry or their spirit will roam for food. If a pot of food is covered while the spirit is eating inside, the person who is
sleeping will now wake up until the lid is lifted.

TAGALOG – ‘KALULUWA AND KAKAMBAL’

The Tagalog soul, the kaluluwa can leave the body involuntarily. The kaluluwa refers more to the soul of the deceased. The soul of a living person is called
kakambal (meaning twin or double). The kakambal may travel around at night and some particularly bad encounters are the cause of nightmares (bangungut). The
kakambal becomes a kaluluwa after death.

ILOKANO – ‘KARARUA, KARKARMA, ANIWAAS AND ARARIA’

The first soul of the Ilokanos is called the kararua, or the soul proper. This is the term used for the equivalent of the Christian soul that can only leave after death.
The Ilokano have a four soul system. In addition to the kararua there are three other souls.

Karkarma is the name of the second soul. It can leave the physical body when one is frightened, or may be stolen. If this soul fails to return the owner
becomes insane, sacrificial ceremonies may be held to lure back a lost karkarma. Karkarma stands for natural vigor, mind and reason.
Aniwaas is the name of the third soul. It can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the body. If one wakes up while the aniwaas is
visiting these places, they may lose the aniwaas and become insane.
Araria is the name of the fourth soul. This is the liberated soul of the dead, the soul that visits relatives and friends in the earthworld asking them to pray
for it or perform a duty it failed to do in life. Its presence can be heralded by the howling of dogs. This soul can make sounds and manipulate physical
objects usually relating to what it did in life.

IBANAG – ‘IKARURUWA’

The Ibanag have a distinction between body (baggi) and soul (ikaruruwa). Ikarurua means ‘a companion of the body’. Mekararuanan (me + kararua – to be rid of
the soul) is a phenomenon where the soul can leave the body but it is without sense. The ritual Mangagaggako invites the soul to return to the body
The Ibanag believe that the soul has physical characteristics. The soul may have color and the souls of dead babies can reach adulthood in the spirit realm. The
role of the soul is to give direction and wholeness to the man, but the body can survive without the soul, and even without the body the soul experiences material wants
and needs.
MANGYAN – ‘KARADUWA’

The Hanunoo Mangyan believe in a plurality of souls. Karaduwa tawu/tawo (human soul), karaduwa manok (Chicken soul) Karaduwa Baboy (pig soul)
karaduwa kuti (cat soul) and karaduwa hipon (shrimp soul). An individual may possess 2-5 other souls. These other souls are explanations for miraculous recoveries
from near fatal experiences, their dream life or natural reactions to startling sounds or movement.
A soul can also separate itself from the physical body. If a person is scared, his soul leaves his body causing sickness. When a person dreams the karaduwa walks
around. The dream that a person has is caused by this walk.
Image from the Soul Book courtesy of GCF books

BISAYA – ‘DUNGAN’
A soul can be captured by bad spirits (e.g. engkantu). Souls may be imprisoned in a spirit cave guarded by old Tan Mulong whose spirit dog has one mammary
gland and two genitals. Sickness is the temporary loss of the soul, permanent loss is death. The soul can be lured back by a skillful shaman. The dungan is ethereal,
something not weighed down by the world. Before it inhabits a human body it inhabits a region above the earth with other dungan. The dungan then takes interest in the
unborn being, usually a relative which it had chosen to inhabit.
The dungan is not located in any specific part of the body and it grows proportionately with the person’s body. Weak at birth it is vulnerable to usug or the
unintentional transfer of disturbing vapors of a strong body to a weak one by proximity. There are many rituals performed to protect and nurture the dungan.
 Dungan also has a secondary meaning of willpower. A stronger dungan means that the person has a greater capacity to dominate others to their line of thought.
People living together may lead to a spiritual competition between the two dungan leading to the weaker becoming sick.
At death the dungan leaves the body via any of the orifices and goes with the air toward the upper regions. There it waits until it finds another body to enter.

Image from Tan Mulong by Leandro Geniston

ILONGGO – ‘DUNGAN’

The Ilonggo soul, the dungan is not seen by the human eye. Sometimes it goes out of the body and takes on visible forms as insects or small animals. A dungan
may leave the body voluntarily while the person is sleeping. If one sees themselves in their dreams it means their dungan has left their physical body. A slumbering person
should be waken gently to give the soul a chance to return to the body. Whatever happens to the dungan also happens to the physical body. The dungan also withdraws
from the body if said body is badly treated

SULOD – ‘UMALAGAD’

Dying among the Sulod is said to be like passing through a narrow door. The experience is horrible, as if the person has to pull hard to get in the door. Once one
departs they simply disappear. No trace of them is left behind.
This soul is watched over by three brother gods Mangganghaw, Manglaegas and Patag’aes. Mangganghaw keeps track over man’s affairs immediately after
marriage. He keeps track of pregnancy. He is also the first to come to the house of a laboring mother, peeps in the house and sees the child being born, after which he
reports to Manglaegas. Manglaegas, after being reported to by Mangganghaw, enters the house to look for the child to make sure the child was born alive, then reports to
Patag’aes who waits until midnight then enters the house to have a conversation with the infant. If Patag’aes discovers anyone eavesdropping on their conversation, he
chokes the child to death. The conversation is on how long the child wants to live and how the child will eventually die. The child gets to choose. After the child has chosen,
Patag’aes takes out his measuring stick and computes the child’s life span, and then he departs.\

TAGBANWA – ‘KIYARALUWA’ AND OTHERS

A Tagbanwa has one ‘true soul’ the kiyaraluwa and five secondary souls. The kiyaraluwa is given to each infant by the god Magindusa as the nose of the child
emerges from the vulva.
The secondary souls are located in the extremities of both hands and feet and in the head just below the air whorl (puyo). The souls of the feet protect one while
walking and from injuries to the feet, the same functions to those in the hands. The secondary soul located by the puyo is not fixed in young children and may cause illness
if not properly aligned, some shamans specialize in realigning the soul to its proper place. This soul is said to have a material form like a round white stone.

BUKIDNON – ‘MAKATU’ AND ‘PIPITU HA MAKATU’

The makatu, their world for soul, exists before a child’s birth but it is separate from the body. There is a ritual in which a miniature cradle is hung over the pregnant
mother in a place where the mother sleeps. The small cradle is where the soul of the unborn baby will sleep before it joins the infant at birth. The makatu is breathed into
man at birth by Miyaw-Biyaw. If all are present in an individual, they are healthy, if one or more wanders away from the body then Illness, irritability and sadness follow. If
all makatu leave the body at the same time, the individual dies.
The Bukidnon also believe in seven souls called the ‘pipitu ha makatu’. One jumps off the cliff, one swims in the water, one puts its hand in snake holes, one sits
under a tree, one is always walking around, one is awake in the day and one is awake at night.
BAGOBO – ‘GIMOKUD’

There are two souls called gimokud. Right hand gimokud is the good soul that manifests as a shadow on the right hand side of the path while the left hand
gimokud is the bad soul that manifests as a shadow on the left side of the path.
The right hand is associated with life, health, activity and joy, remaining in the body throughout life. When death causes the right hand gimokud to leave the body, it
gives notice by visiting in the form of an insect.
The left hand soul is the cause of lethargy, pain and illness. The left hand soul also leaves the body at night and risks various dangers, if it visits the sea the
sleeping person feels shivers, the behavior it engages in leaves a physical effect on the body. After death the gimokud becomes a busaw (digging up dead bodies).
When the throbbing of the skull cap stops, the soul exits through what used to be the fontanel.
All larger animals have two souls each while smaller birds bees and insects only have one soul. Inanimate objects have a single soul which goes to the underworld
so they can serve their owners.

Busaw by Leandro Geniston and Mykie Concepcion

948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

The Practice of Religion

Researches speak of religion as the people's way of connecting themselves to God as they search for meaning in life. Religion is also popularly
understood as "belief and behaviors related to supernatural beings and powers.” Still others define religion as "an organized system of ideas about
the spiritual sphere, along with ceremonial practices, or way of relating with the supernatural or the divine.” It can be simplified as the bond
between God and man”

Characteristics of Religion

A belief in anthropomorphic* supernatural being

*having human characteristics.
A focus on the sacred supernatural
The presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural beings as well as physical beings and objects
Some religious traditions consider geographic places to be spiritually sacred.
The performance of ritual activities
The articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means
Provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a community; provide explanation for unknown and a
sense of control for individuals

THE FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION

Stability and cohesion - shared religion binds people closely together.

Religion forms a balance and cohesive moral community. It is a means of protecting individuals from anomie, alienation and the threats of
disruptive mass movements and so maximizes the individual's potential for happiness.
Shared religious experiences provide the social cement for group unity and consensus

Social identity - shared religion gives people an identity and social membership

This is achieved through special naming ceremonies, in christening and baptism in the Christian church. For Durkheim, group solidarity is
affirmed and heightened during collective ceremony and ritual
Religion represents the necessary power of the social group over the otherwise isolated, anomic individual
Religion serves to integrate the person into the society. It is functionally useful for people to grow up identifying with a particular place or nation, to
strengthen a person's sense of national commitment, especially if either religion or nation come under threat

Collective conscience - religion unites people in moral ways

The group affirms its belief in the central values through its commitment to the religious system. These sentiments produce "value consensus”.
Religion thereby generates and maintains the collective conscience. This was observable in its effects and was open to scientific study just as
other social effects could be studied and analyzed, by collecting relevant statistics, through careful observation and recording or other
experimental methods.
Durkheim saw society as a moral community, whose members were socialized into accepting appropriate patterns of behavior over time. This is
an unending process since people are always being integrated into new groups, adopting new norms, absorbing new values and adapting new
patterns of behaviour.
An orderly social life is only possible when people share moral values, in this way, society becomes embedded in the individual.

Socialization and social control - religion represents the value system of the society

It is a conservative force which contributes to moral and wider social order and stability.
Many cultural norms are given sacred legitimacy by religious beliefs, eg, the Ten Commandments provide a prescription for an orderly lifestyle. By
promoting such values through family, school and church, the process of socialization occurs.
Appropriate modes of thinking and behaving are controlled in ways which will promote the good, orderly society.

Meaning and purpose - religion gives meaning and purpose to people's lives

In the face of death, disease and the hazards of everyday living, people are vulnerable to all kinds of disasters beyond their control. Religious
beliefs offer people comfort in times of crisis
It is the institution which gives people the strength to continue and promotes the long-term maintenance of society as a result
Haviland, et.al (2007) has this to say about religion the benefits of religion:

"Therefore, the practice of religion is beneficial to individuals, families, states, and the nation. It improves health, learning, economic well-being, self-
control, self-esteem, and empathy. It reduces the incidence of social pathologies, such as out-of-wedlock births, crime, delinquency, drug and alcohol
addiction, health problems, anxieties, and prejudices, Furthermore, religion creates a moral community to which people experience a sense of
belonging. It provides rites of passage as in the case of sacraments in Christianity It provides emotional support. It serves as a means to provide
answers to ultimate questions in life. It shapes the people's views of the universe. Finally, it can be a powerful agent of social change"

Techniques of Religion

The practice of religion pertains to the general acts followed by the laity in accordance with the religious requirements. This, points to the overt

conduct of the laity or believers performing the beliefs and feelings.

1. Prayer - This is the communication to the Supernatural Being through speech or thoughts. It simply means conversation with the Almighty.
2. Divination - It is the elevation of a person's weak state to GOD. It is a process of which a man strive to perfect his imperfection (Bernardo, 2016)
3. Ceremony - This refers to a number of interconnected rituals done at specific time and place. Examples of these are Holy Mass, solemnizing marriage,
priest's ordination and tedium.
4. Sacrifice - This is expressing reverence to GOD or any perceived spirits or supernatural powers. For instance, abstinence and fasting. For the
Catholic, abstinence is not eating meat on Lenten season and Good Friday during Holy Week. Fasting is having one full meal a day and small meals
the rest of the day. Fasting is simply a sacrifice.
5. Reverence - This pertains to the feeling of awe coupled with love and admiration a person offers to the Almighty or Supernatural Power.
6. Duty - This tries to please the Almighty by reverent act. For instance, it is the duty of anyone to follow GOD's Ten Commandments.
7. Rituals - This is a means of sanctification. Sanctification involves act of purification, supplication and thanksgiving (Schmidt, et al. 2005) In a simple
way rituals are expected means of performing religious acts. For instance, praying, making the sign of the cross, processions, way of the cross on
Lenten Season - for the Catholics.
8. Sacred Objects - These are objects attributed to the Supernatural Power such as the Bible, rosaries, prayer books and crucifix. To the Catholic, the
bread and wine sanctified during Holy Mass is a very sacred symbolism of the life of Jesus Christ
9. Taboo - This pertains to negative presentation of propitiatory devices or action wherein a person should refrain from certain act not in conformity with
the desire of the Almighty. It refers to the thou shall not" behavior. For instance, one must not practice incest (San Juan & Centeno, 2011).
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

Common Elements of Religion

One of the hallmarks of religion is a belief in supernatural beings and forces. They can take a variety forms, not all of which are found in every religion.
Other categories of religion is animism and animatism.

ANIMATISM

A belief in a supernatural power not part of supernatural beings is referred to as animatism. For those who hold this belief, the power is usually
impersonal, unseen, and potentially everywhere. It is neither good nor evil, but it is powerful and dangerous if misused. It is something like electricity or "the
force" in the Star Wars movies.

ANIMISM

A belief that natural objects are animated by spirits is animism. The term comes from the Latin word for soul (anima). This belief can take diverse
forms. Things in nature may all have within them different spirits--each rock, tree, and cloud may have its own unique spirit. Alternatively, all things in nature
may be thought of as having the same spirit. This latter version of animism was characteristic of many Native American cultures. In both forms of animism,
the spirits are thought of as having identifiable personalities and other characteristics such as gender. A belief in a powerful, mature, protective "mother
nature" is an example. The spirits may be benevolent, malevolent, or neutral. They can be lovable, terrifying, or even mischievous. They can interact with
humans and can be pleased or irritated by human actions. Therefore, people must be concerned about them and will try to avoid displeasing them.

Initially, animatism and animism may seem to be the same thing. In fact both beliefs are often found in the same culture.

CRITERIA ANIMISM ANIMATISM

the belief that spirits exist in natural belief that there is power in all forces
Definition
objects around you

does not speak of individual spiritual

Characteristics speaks of individual spiritual beings
beings

does not speak of a singular speaks of a supernatural force that

in Supernatural Force supernatural force but various
spiritual exists everywhere both
inanimate beings and animated

Supernatural force does not have a

Personality Supernatural forces have personalities
particular personality

SUPERNATURAL CREATURES IN PHILIPPINE FOLKLORE

 Supernatural forces range from impersonal spirits to gods and can be all powerful or annoying
creatures that possess humans

The Philippine folklore is rich with mythical and supernatural creatures. It is not as popular as those in Western cultures since it is mostly composed of
fragmented tales of horror and wonder. Nevertheless, it has influenced the lives of Filipinos that certain customs are being practiced so to appease these
beings and to prevent them from terrorizing people. So which supernatural creatures Filipinos are most afraid of? What are their equivalents to other cultures?
And how evil are they?
 Many Filipino customs are influenced by their beliefs in various supernatural creatures. Say avoiding too much noise when near old trees so as not to
disturb these unearthly beings, or beeping the vehicle when crossing bridges at nights as a permission from them. It may seem peculiar but these habits and
more have become part of the way of life for many Filipinos, even for those living in the urban areas.

Let’s review!

Aswangs are the most feared mythical creature by the Filipinos. They are Filipino ghouls and shapeshifters. They are human-like by day but transform into
monsters at night. They can change from human to an animal form like bat, bird, pig, cat, or black dog. The transformation can happen through their own will
or through the use of foul concocted oil. They also have the ability to steal cadavers secretly and replace them with the trunk of a banana tree carved in the
cadaver’s likeness.

The tiyanak is another popular name in the Philippine folklore. Also known as impakto, it is a baby who died before receiving baptism rites. After its death, it
goes into the Limbo, a certain place in Hell where unbaptized dead people fall into, and then transforms into an evil spirit. It returns to the mortal world as a
goblin or a vampire-like creature, bound to eat living victims. A tiyanak can also be the offspring of a mortal woman and a demon, or an aborted fetus which
comes to take vengeance on its mother.

The tikbalang (also tigbalang, tigbalan, tikbalan, or demon horse) is a half-man and half-horse creature. It has the head and feet of a horse, and the body of
a human. It usually appears on the night of full moon looking for a female prey and usually rapes the victim in order to bear its offspring. Tikbalangs are
playful creatures and they usually make people imagine things that are not real, sometimes to the point that they become crazy.

The Manananggal is a special type of aswang who has the ability to fly after separating itself from the lower half of its body. It resembles the Western
vampire in being an evil, man-eating monster or witch. Its name is taken from the Filipino word “tanggal” which means to “to separate” or “to remove.” Most
manananggals, like most aswangs, are females. It appears in human form during the day. At night, it finds an isolated place where she will leave her lower
torso. It separates itself by will and its upper body flies, using bat-like wings, to hunt for victims.

Kapre is the Filipino equivalent of bigfoot from the West. It is a tree demon with more human characteristics. It is described as a dirty, dark giant (around 7 to
9 ft tall) who hides and lives within and atop large trees, particularly old trees such as balete (or banyan), acacia, or mango trees. This creature loves to
smoke huge rolls of cigars or tobaccos. Unlike other supernatural beings, the kapre does not harm human; instead, it is a “friendly” creature who loves to fool
around. It may make contact with people to offer friendship, or if it is attracted to a woman. It also play pranks to people and scares away little children
playing at night. It is said that if you are stuck in a place and keep going around in circles, a kapre must have been playing with you. To escape the spell, you
must wear your shirt inside-out.

Engkantos, or engkantadas (when referring to female creatures), are nature fairies and spirits. They are said to be angels who revolted with Lucifer against
the Lord. When the angels of God drove them out of heaven, some fell on earth. Those who fell in the forest or thick woods and lived in trees are the
engkantos. Hence they will possess some extraordinary powers but are limited. They are fair skinned, blond, with blue or green eyes, and far shorter or
much taller than the average human. They are mostly beautiful, with so much grace and charm that they attract many people. The dwelling place of the
engkanto may look like a large rock or trees but to their human friends, their house can appear as beautiful palaces. They also like to live in large trees like
the balete where they can also put their belongings.

A nuno or nuno sa punso is a dwarf-like creature or goblin in Philippine folklore which lives in an anthill or termite mound. The term “nuno sa punso” means
ancestor or grandparent of the anthill. It is described as a small old man with a long beard. It is ill-tempered and easily gets angered. If someone disturbs,
especially kicks, his mound, the nuno would put curse on that person. In effect, the offender would have swollen foot or pain on any part of his body,
experience vomiting blood, urinate black liquid, inflict illness, and have excessive hair growth on the back.

RITUALS

Rituals are 'patterned forms of behavior that have something to do with the supernatural realm'. They are performed in a repetitive nature. They can
be religious or secular. "People worldwide engage in religious ritual require a considerable amount of time or personal sacrifice. A good example is the case
of the Vegans of Phuket, Thailand who perform various acts of self-torture, including bathing in hot oil, fire walking, and piercing themselves with sharp
implements during their annual vegetarian festival. "Life cycle rituals", often referred to as 'rites of passage, mark a status change from one important life
stage to another. The Christian sacraments are examples of this. Many religions encourage rituals of pilgrimage, a round trip to a place considered sacred
for the purpose of religious devotion or ritual" (Sosis, 2010).

In many cases, sacrifice as the offering of something to the supernatural beings is performed to please or to express gratitude to such deities. An
example of this is the offering ritual called 'harang'. practiced by the Visayan fishing villages. Such ritual is described as "a process of purification (tuob),
invocation (pagtawag), entreaty (pangamuyo), offering (bayad), feast (kan-on), encompassing almost every aspect of the community's existence including
good or bad harvest, the operation of fishing boats and cases of illnesses" (Kawada, M., 1956). Kanyaw in the Cordillera, which is performed as an
expression of thanksgiving to their deities as well as a means to appease them is also noteworthy. This is also an expression of solidarity among the
members of the community. Similarly, the Buklog of the Subanens in Aurora, Zamboanga is performed in their fiesta to honor the spirits and plea for favors. It
is also a symbol of the Subanens' relationship with their fellowmen, and a spiritual journey to their Creator. Rituals in this sense have the function of uniting
the people. They allay fear of crisis as they prompt collective action.

MAGIC

Magic is commonly referred to as "tricks" and "illusions" that make impossible things seem to happen, usually performed as entertainment. Stein and
Stein (2011), describe it as a special talent or skill; an act that makes impossible things happen through some sort of trickery or deception, and thereby
manipulating not the supernatural world, but rather human perception. However, magic, as anthropologists use the term, refers to activities, usually rituals, by
which a person can compel the supernatural to behave in certain ways. It is seen as the ability which gives somebody control over the forces of nature. It is
used in many cultures for healing, keeping away evil, seeking the truth, and for vengeful purposes. It is an attempt to make supernatural forces act in specific
ways for good or evil purposes by recourse to certain specified formulas.

Stein & Stein (2011), state that magic answers our need to have some control of our lives and also of others with the ability to control the supernatural
forces. Haviland (2007), also explains that like religion, magic tries to explain the unexplainable and provides comfort and a coherent view of the world. It
also reduces stress, reinforcing group norms and identity, providing sanctions for individual behavior and providing a sense of the world. It leads to
avoidance or healing of illness. In the area of entertainment, magic captivates the audience with expert showmanship. It promotes and advances the art of
staged magic. Magic exists in all cultures.
WITCHCRAFT

Witchcraft, commonly understood as 'kulam', refers to the idea that certain people have an inborn power to harness spirits or energies for specific
purposes. "It is an explanation of events based on the belief that certain individuals possess an innate psychic power capable of causing harm, including
sickness and death" (Microsoft Encarta 2009). Here, it is closely understood closely with sorcery. Witchcraft is widely considered evil. Like sorcery, it is seen
as magic or special power that is worked for illegal or antisocial ends. For example, magic that is worked to kill someone for vengeful purposes is bad. The
witch or sorcerer tends to steal food remnants, hair, nail clippings, or clothes from the victim and use these objects to inflict harm upon the victim. As stated
by Stein & Stein (2011), "Although magic is used for variety of reasons to increase success and control the uncertainties of life, magic can also be used in
antisocial ways to interfere with the economic activities of others and to bring about illness and even death. Anything that disrupts the life and happiness of
someone is evil. The use of magic in this way in abominable. But why do people still practice witchcraft?

Haviland (2007), mentions that witchcraft serves a number of functions in society. Just like religion and magic, he says that witchcraft provides
explanations of the inexplicable, like illness, or natural disasters, as well as allows a community to come together, focus their energies on something (ridding
themselves of bad witchcraft and to reassert their communal identity. It is also a way for people to explain a personal misfortune without having to shoulder
any blame to themselves. Finally, it provides an outlet for feelings of hostility and frustration without disturbing the norms of the larger group

WHAT THE BIBLE SAYS ABOUT MAGIC, RITUAL AND WITCHCRAFT

As Filipinos of today, predominantly Christians, we have the Bible as our guide in the practice of our religion. Specifically, the Book of Deuteronomy
states:

"Don't sacrifice your children in the fires on your altars, and do not let your people practice fortune-telling, or use sorcery, or interpret omens, or engage in witchcraft, or cast spells,
or function as mediums or psychics, or call forth the spirits of the dead. Anyone who does these thing is detestable to the Lord. It is because the other nation have done these
detestable things that the Lord your God will drive them out ahead of you but you must be blameless before the Lord your God" (Dr.18 10-13).

For us Christians, God alone is worthy of adoration, for He alone, is the ONE, TRUE GOD. Such acts contrary to this, such as ascribing power to
amulets, magic and others mentioned above, are considered idolatrous and therefore, unacceptable. It is a violation to the very first commandment of God,
"I am the Lord, your God who brought you out of Egypt where you were slaves; worship no god but Me" (Ex. 20:2-3). This is further made clear in
Jesus Christ's declaration of the "Great Commandment of Love when He said:

"The most important one is this: Listen, Israel! The Lord our God is the only Lord. Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind and with all your
strength. The second most important commandment is this: Love your neighbor as you love yourself. There is no other commandment more important than these two" (Mark 12:29-
31).

In conclusion, submission to practices such as magic, kulam, and others of their kind may not lead us to the "ONE, TRUE GOD", the source of all
power. Much discernment must be done to examine or evaluate our practices whether or not they lead us closer to the One, True God. There are indeed
Filipino traditional religious practices (popular/folk religiosity) which are not helpful to our true worship of GOD, practices which need to be purified, and this
calls for a genuine, meaningful Christian evangelization. Without careful examination, our practices may lead us away from the ultimate source of happiness,
our ultimate end. Such ultimate end is God Himself, our union with Him. Failure to examine the things that we do, the way we live our lives, results to the loss
of meaning in life. Jesus Christ Himself gave us a clear guide when He spoke about the commandment of love - love of God and love of neighbor.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

The Concept of Loob

In the contemporary Filipino understanding of self, we have the concept of loob and personhood. LOOB, the inner self or inner being, is the core of
one's personhood and where the true worth of the person lies. It is what makes one what he is and who he is as a person. It is a term used to describe a
person in relationship with others. Contemporary psychology has defined the person by his relationship with others and such is done by describing what sort
of loob he has such as magandang loob or mabuting loob and masamang loob. A person is said to be of magandang loob/mabuting loob if he relates well
and positively with others. He is not only well-intentioned but be also promotes the well-being of others, especially those in need. They are called people of
goodwill. On the contrary, a person is said to be of masamang loob if he is of bad character. He correlates negatively with others. This LOOB is manifested
through external behavior, and behavior in an authentic person stems from the loob.

According to Mercado (1994). "a purified kalooban is supported by prayer. This loob that has been continually purified and strengthened acquires
commitment to the cause of the individual. This happens through forms of sacrifices which include prayers, abstinence from certain kinds of food, or comforts,
and sexual abstinence. Constant prayer and religious exercises are ways to purify the loob. One of the most popular sacrifices done by some Filipino
Catholics is the penitensia during Good Friday. The penitents reenact the suffering of Jesus Christ, from the flagellation to the crucifixion. Penitents whip
themselves on the back, using whips made of bamboo or paddles to draw blood. To complete the rites, some devotees willingly allow themselves to be
nailed to the cross, reenacting Jesus crucifixion. Despite the pain, loss of blood, the penitent emerges a "new man" whose loob has been renewed, ready to
face squarely the challenges of this world. Prayer and ritual can be a source of power".

Covar, in Mercado's book, The Filipino Mind' says that "the use of amulet (anting-anting) may also be a source of power. Those who use the anting-
anting believe that the words of Christ and the things used in Catholic liturgy are a strong source of power. While Scriptures say that the Word of God is
efficacious (Heb 4:12; 1Th.2:13 f.), meaning, *has the power to produce a desired result, their belief extends to other rituals and liturgical language in the
Catholic rite. The efficacy of the anting-anting depends upon the proper execution of certain rituals and the following of strict rules." Holy Week is supposedly
the best time for obtaining, testing and recharging the powers of anting-antings".

God's Kagandahang-loob

The Filipino concept and value, kagandahang-loob (kindness, generosity, benevolence, helpfulness) can be a very appropriate description of who God
is for Filipinos. It connotes all that is good in a person which is the ideal among Filipinos. It is a quality of BEING which has its roots in the very heart of a
person and which is given expression in the totality of one's life of interrelationship. This reminds us of Jesus in whom words and deeds are true
manifestations of His kagandahang-loob. This is why God's saving activity is described as kagandahang-loob.

Loob and Prayer

Prayer is said to be the first expression of man's interior truth". Interior truth refers to the core of one's personhood, his loob, which is closely related to
man's spirit. It the ultimate organizing center of human reality. It is also the very zone of creaturehood which is the bedrock layer of ideas, feelings and
behaviors.

Prayer then is the Christian's acknowledgment and awareness of the true nature of the look and the richness or weakness of this loob as exposed by
the light of faith. This look is made "in the image and likeness of God, hence, it is constituted by being related to God.

With this, payer becomes an active receptiveness, an active listening to what God is revealing through one's loob. It is the recognition,
acknowledgment, acceptance of this relates to God of our loob in an explicit manner. Christian prayer is our conscious personal communion with God, our
Father, in Christ Jesus. It is the fruit of the Holy Spirit working in our hearts, enabling us to turn to God and with confidence, to call Him our Father. This
prayer is always a free gift of God, which leads us back to Him, pagbabalik loob (conversion) when astray, restoring the original goodness of one's kalooban.

How does this concept of loob and prayer help us find meaning in life?
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Spiritual Self

Logotherapy: Finding and Creating Meaning

Viktor Frankl's refers Human spirit in Logotherapy as that which is uniquely human. Logotherapy is
based on the premise that the human is person motivated by a "will to meaning an inner pull to find meaning in life. Here is a list of tenets or doctrine that
represents basic principles of logotherapy.

Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
People's main motivation for living is their will to find meaning in Life
People have freedom to find meaning in what they do, and what they experience or at least in the stand they take when faced with certain situation of
unchangeable suffering (Frankl,1959, Retrieved)

According to Frankl, the main motivation why men continue to live is the will to meaning A person must see meaning in his life. This meaning is unique for
every individual and it gives a talk that wily an individual alone can do at a given moment. This may vary from time to time, as well as from person to person.
It is this kind of significance that gives his own will to meaning. According to Logotherapy, we can discover this meaning in life in three different ways

1. By creating a work or doing a deed

Whenever we find value in who we are through the things we do, then we create meaning in our lives. It can be a scientist who has discovered a cure for
cancer or a book vendor whose reason for selling is to spread learning or it can also be a father taking care of his son.

2. By experiencing something or encountering someone

Finding meaning in life can also happen when one experiences positive things like goodness, truth, beauty and especially being loved. Where love means
that one is accepted for his uniqueness or that his present and that change lives other potentialities are encouraged to the fulfilment of becoming the best
person he can be. It can also be just by experiencing nature and culture where there is human flourishing

3. By the attitude people take toward unavoidable suffering

The third emphasizes that even in suffering one can find meaning in life where cm turn ones predicament into triumph. Suffering costs to be suffering at the
moment it finds a meaning, such as the meuning of a sacrifice. A good example of this would be NickVujicic who was born without limbs but has now
become an international inspirational speaker. For Vujicic, he chose to be worthy of his suffering and meet the challenge that was given him

One big emphasis from all these three is that a person can always find meaning in every situation one finds oneself.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Digital Self

Introduction to the Digital Self

The concept of the digital self originated from the phenomenon Russell Belk (1988) call as ‘extended self’. He believed our possessions are a main contributor to and reflection of our identities.
Then, external objects, such as clothes, jewellery and cars etc. that he believed we used and considered as part of ourselves.

Nowadays however, it isn’t merely the tangible belongings that researchers consider as part of our extended self. Our digital possessions such as photos, videos, statuses, texts, and emails
are now seen to be significantly important to shaping our digital self. Think about it, could you live without your smartphone or laptop?

The immense progress of technology in the field of communications has greatly influenced the lifestyle, work, habits and the overall experiences of people all over the world. The digital, mobile,
and social media have become an indispensable part of everyday life. Also, the internet is also playing an ever more important role in our lives. With the world’s internet users spending an average of 6
hours and 43 minutes online each day, the typical user now spends more than 40 percent of their waking life (Kemp, 2020 on Digital 2020 Report.) This constant rise in the use of digital communication
has irrefutably re-defined and expanded the concept of the digital self of individuals. Online activities are no longer separable from our real lives, but an integral part of it (Chamorro- Premuzic, 2015)
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
Digital Self

Online Identity
Identity has many definitions, but we can simplify it into a few words: you are who you are and what you do. Simply put, your identity is the sum of your characteristics, including your
birthplace and birthday, the schools you attended, your shoe size, and so on. Some of those characteristics never change, such as your birthday, and some change over time, such as your hair color.

Similarly, when you are using the Internet, your online identity is the sum of your characteristics and interactions online. Because you interact differently with each website you visit, each of
those websites will have a different picture of who you are and what you do. For example, the way you project yourself in Facebook may be entirely different than how you express yourself in Twitter.
Your audiences therefore in these two sites may have an idea about who you are. Sometimes the different representations of you are referred to as partial identities, because none of them has the
full and true picture of who you are. Let’s just say that these partial identities reflect tidbits about an individual's personality and identity.

Your online identity is not the same as your real-world identity because the characteristics you represent online differ from the characteristics you represent in the physical world. Every website
you interact with has its own idea of your identity because each one you visit sees you and your characteristics differently. For example, shopping sites like Shopee, Lazada and Zalora has
established a partial identity for you based on the products you prefer and buy, whether it’s you on your phone or someone else using your account. Google Finance has established a partial identity
for you based on the stocks you are following, whether you actually own those stocks or not. Spotify gives you a recommendation on the songs and playlists you like. Neither one has your full identity,
even if they were to put together your partial identities.

The result is that you have one true identity and many partial identities. Some of the information associated with a partial identity is under your control; other information may be out of your
control or even completely invisible to you. Regardless of what you can and cannot control, they all contribute to “who you are and what you do.”

Evonomie (2018) mentions that online identity is likened to an investment. “You start out with a small amount of capital, and the way you use it over time determines how much you end up with later on. The difference
is, it’s actually a lot easier to control your online identity than it is to predict the stock or real estate markets”. Evonomie sites the following elements of the digital self.

Concept Recall:

A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet. It includes the websites you visit, emails you send, comments on social media, and information you submit to online services. As
we have mentioned, anything you do online, whether it is merely searching or actual interaction with other people or companies, they form part of your online identity.

Learn more about Digital Footprint!

WATCH: Four Reasons to Care About Your Digital Footprint by Internet Society

SUMMARY:

The digital self is the persona you use when you’re online.
Online Identity is the sum of your characteristics and your interactions.
Partial Identity is a subset of characteristics that make up your identity.
A digital footprint is a trail of data you create while using the Internet.
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Self-presentation Online
Magalona, Sadsad and Cruz (2018) stated that the digital self is a decoy that we use to conceal our real self. As we share ourselves to the world we try to hide our true self to cover up the
issues that we have about ourselves and show the world that we are fine and perfect. As we show the significant others our cover through the digital self we, on the other hand, expect affirmation
and acceptance. The digital world has made thing happen more swiftly which includes finding a partner or losing one through dating sites and the social media, customize a character and joining
gaming tournaments worldwide; filter or edit an image according to the physical features desired; or maybe store and transfer loads of file using our hand held gadgets.

The Dramaturgy of the Self

All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances and one man in his time plays many parts."

~William Shakespeare

Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective that focuses on the management of everyday life proposed by Erving Goffman. Goffman compares the human world to a theatre and drew
comparisons between humans in everyday life and the actors that played roles on-stage.

As in theatrical performances, social interaction also has the front stage, back stage, and off-stage regions. At the front, factors like the performer's consciousness that there is an audience
and their expectations of him/her influence or impact the performance. As for the back stage region, this is where the performer can relax and be himself/herself, away from the prying eyes of the crowd.
Someone is then considered off-stage if he/she gets to meet members of the audience completely independent or separate from the performance.

In the context of social media, the front stage region is when people's carefully-constructed digital selves engage in online activities, such as publicly commenting on posts, choosing which
"selfie" to upload, or even deciding on what thoughts to publish. On the other hand, the back stage region is when someone simply logs out and momentarily abstains from social media use. Off- stage,
finally, is when people actually meet up with people they only know on the internet, or at least those they perform to online through various cues and expressions.

Furthermore, Goffman added that people, when engaged in social interactions, internalize what he calls impression management: a process wherein each attempts to manufacture and
present one’s self positively to avoid embarrassment (Crossman, 2018). He also stated that people often give out expressions or cues that aid in the formation of an identity for others to confirm or
deny later on (Rosenfeld, 2015). As examples, when a user posts something on social media in broken English or uploads a picture of a newly purchased designer bag, others may accuse them of
being a try-hard or social-climber, respectively; but reactions can also be of the exact opposite.

SUMMARY:

According to Goffman, every individual is engaged in impression management by his conscious decision to present himself in a certain way and his continuous performance to ensure that a
particular image of himself is established. This implies that individuals wear masks, play roles and present themselves in the ways they see themselves or in the ways they desire to be seen by
others (Goffman, 1959).

Impression Management in Social Media

Impression management refers to “conscious or unconscious attempts to influence images during interaction” (Gilmore, Stevens, Harrell-Cook & Ferris, 1999). It is how people attempt to
manage or control the perceptions which others form of them. Individuals manage their impressions when they wish to present a favourable image of themselves to others. Thus, the concept of
impression management is based on the assumption that individuals have an inherent need to be accepted and included, and therefore act accordingly.

The opportunity to manage impressions has been greatly influence by new communication technologies. In the Internet era, people can make and remake themselves, choosing the details of
their online impression. Adolescents now can manage the impression they make through social media in many ways. These impression management opportunities come with the visual anonymity of
the social media, providing users much greater degrees of freedom. People can manipulate various characteristics online to present themselves as more humorous, friendlier, or more likable than in
daily life.

The following are impression management strategies:

Through ingratiation, people try to elicit the affection of others by conforming to others' opinions, by doing favours, or by praising others' achievements.
Through intimidation, people try to elicit fear in others by projecting both the capacity and inclination to deliver negative outcomes. Typically, this strategy is used in relationships that are non-
voluntary rather than in freely formed relationships among peers.
Through self-promotion, people try to elicit the respect of others by highlighting their prior successes and excusing previous failures.
Through supplication, people try to elicit the nurturance of others through self-deprecation and entreaties for help. This is the last resort and is typically used by low-power persons who have
little else going for them.

Download this presentation for examples from movies!

Impression_Management.pptx

Our strategies in impression management change depending on who we are interacting with or what personal information we need to be providing to present ourselves in a way that will be
acceptable to others. Thus, we can select only what we want to present and impress to others, what we view beneficial to our personality, especially when we create a digital self. We carefully
choose representation or expression of one’s real world to the online world.

SUMMARY:

Impression Management refers to conscious efforts by people to influence how others think of them.

Why: individuals have an inherent need to be accepted and included, and therefore act accordingly
How: with the use of controlling information, photos, and videos and present them in a proper way in social media.

Impression Management strategies:

Self-Promotion -individuals point out their abilities or accomplishments in order to be seen as competent by observers
Ingratiation -individuals do favors or use flattery to elicit an attribution of likability from observers
Exemplification -people self-sacrifice or go above and beyond the call of duty in order to gain the attribution of dedication from observers
Intimidation -where people signal their power or potential to punish in order to be seen as dangerous by observers
Supplication -where individuals advertise their weaknesses or shortcomings in order to elicit an attribution of being needy from observers.
948 PDEV 1013: Understanding the Self
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The Impact of Digital Advancements to Identity

1. Disconnectedness

The increasing use of gadgets and presence in the social media results in being disconnected from the people around us. As we rush to check and connect to the online world we neglect to
interact face to face with those who demand attention from us. Often, we prefer to stay stuck on the social media creating recent posts or stalking on someone else account for hours while being
mentally insensitive to the happenings around us. Such reality is what disconnects us from our relationships.

2. Developing and Nurturing Virtual Relationship

The progressive development in the features of social networking sites allows individuals to gain thousands of friends and even millions of followers. This eventually leads to creating virtual
relationships which satisfies the need for relationships and intimacy. However as this can provide positive impact on the individual the same can also cause inability to maintain face to face
relationships which demands more personal adjustments and understanding of human differences. Hence, it can be concluded that relationships have become superficial as we tend to nurture the
relationship only within the confines of the digital environment which demands simple duties such as "liking' or sharing a friend's recent online post

3. Online Recklessness

The online world has provided its users the opportunity to express themselves by communicating their thoughts and responses whether in the form of an emoticon, emoji, animated gif, meme
or through traditional words. These are ways to express positive or negative feedback on a recent post seen on a random feed in a social networking site.

The digital world provides us with the chance of expressing our thoughts and viewpoints from the confines and comforts of our room but do we really use this freedom with a sense of responsibility?
If we state an unconventional response that can trigger public outrage or collective reaction from all of those who can see our raw reactions, are we willing to stand for the consequences? We are all
liable for our acts but many have revealed the tendency is to be reckless and irresponsible. They cannot regulate and monitor on their expression of emotions. After the damage has been done through
the posting of opinions or personal reactions online, the next step is to delete the same. This is definitely a manifestation of extreme recklessness which does not in any way help in the development of
maturity among individuals.

BUT remember, class, that whatever you post online is there forever. You may have deleted a post but people out there have a receipt of what you posted. Receipts are evidences or proof
often in the form of screenshots or saved snapshots. Case in point: Liza Soberano on rape comment

4. Distorted Identity Formation

The digital world offers the opportunity to create several identities according to our hearts' desire. An individual can change his citizenship, gender, looks, character, and status in the online world.
The desire to be someone else or to create an ideal self in this realm can be achieved instantly through the advance features offered in the social networking sites as enhanced by open sourced
applications. The identity that we desire to project Online may either reflect our true self or our ideal self. However as we work for affirmation from our Online friends and acquaintances, we tend not to
be truthful to ourselves. Indeed, nobody wanted to be rejected, everyone desires to be loved and accepted but as the Online world offers varied ways to enhance our image then that becomes our tool to
create a 'new identity that will guarantee acceptance by the valued online friends, followers and acquaintances despite the deviation from what is real.

5. A Significant Portion of Our lives is Being Broadcasted (OverSharing)

The online world gives its users the chance to have that 'celebrity feel'. We pose everything from food to travel to relationship status and minor or major events in our life. If analyzed well, it
shows that every detail of what we post online is for public consumption. Without considering the risks and the hazard online world has evidently become an outlet for most of us. This is called
oversharing.

Oversharing happens when people share too much personal information to the public or a stranger. It is a big problem on social media sites, which make "putting yourself online" easy. The
following are examples of oversharing:

Posting intimate details about your relationships, friendships, family matters, or personal drama including heated arguments with significant others
Using social media as a soapbox or a way to vent your emotions.
Posting photos or videos of things meant to be private including embarrassing photos or videos of yourself or others.
Regularly posting your meals.
"Checking In" to everywhere you go.
Posting about whatever you are doing at a given moment, multiple times a day.
Sharing too much info about and photos of your children.

Bu why do we overshare?

Social Media Encourages It

Social media sites invite users to share everything about their personal lives. It's easy to post a status update, a photo, an event, or a "check-in" with the click of a button. Unfortunately, this can
lead to FOMO, or fear of missing out. FOMO, according to JWTIntelligence, is “the uneasy and sometimes all-consuming feeling that you’re missing out — that your peers are doing, in the
know about, or in possession of more or something better than you.”

Are you experiencing FOMO? Here are the signs:

You’re always on your phone, checking your Facebook or other social media notifications, and texting friends, even when you ’re at a party, supposedly having a great time.
W hen you’re at home, you ’re still constantly checking Twitter, Facebook, and text messages.
You have a hard time making a buying decision because something better might come along.
You don’t want to commit to making plans until you ’ve heard from everyone and can pick the most exciting option.
You think other people are having a better time, buying better things, or living happier lives based on their profile page or tweets.
You feel anxious and inadequate after reading your friends’ Facebook updates.

To Vent Emotions And Stress

It is likely that we have seen someone's angry Facebook or Twitter rant at least once. Because social media gives everyone a voice and a platform to express it, it can be tempting to "air
your dirty laundry" there.

Venting anger was found to relax people (in the short-run). In a study by Martin, Coyier, Van Sistine, & Schroeder (2013), 100 percent of frequent internet ranters reported feeling calm and
relaxed after posting on a rant-site like justrage.com. They concluded that benefits are only short-term and, in the long run, people who rant online (or in person) suffer for it. In fact, in this same
study, they found that frequent ranters were angrier than the average person and expressed their anger in a more negative way than the average person. So, even though it relaxes people in
the short-run, it’s bad for you in the long-run.

For Attention

Getting likes, comments, shares, and that little boost of attention can give them the feeling of being famous. This can lead to a desire to post things they know will get them noticed, even if
they're "too much."

In an article published by the Association for Psychological Science (2016), they presented that:
The same brain circuits that are activated by eating chocolate and winning money are activated when teenagers see large numbers of “likes” on their own photos or the photos of peers in a social network, according to
findings from a study in which researchers scanned teens’ brains while they used social media.

6. Digital Self-Harm

Almost of similar degree to mutilating oneself we show how sad and problematic we are through the online space. Studies have revealed that around 6 adolescents between the ages of 12 to
17 years are practicing this so called digital self-harm," and they are done through the use of smartphones. According to criminologist and cyberbullying researchers Justin W. Patchin, Ph.D., and
Sameer Hinduja, Ph.D., digital self-harm entails the “anonymous online posting, sending, or otherwise sharing of hurtful content about oneself.” This implies that people tend to demean themselves
on public as they tend to validate their insecurities and weaknesses among their online friends and followers.
 Patchin and Hinduja (2017) note in their study that “…many who had participated in digital self-harm were looking for a response,” What kind of response exactly? The youth in Patchin and
Hinduja’s survey reported several different kinds. These included wanting others’ pity, wanting “to be validated that someone did actually care about me,” and attempting to elicit others’ help (e.g.,
hoping that another person might come to the assistance of or defend the target of the harmful statement—the individual who made the statement to begin with).

The loneliness, emptiness and anxiety digital technology produce results in the declining mental health and the increasing rate of adolescent suicide. As the online world has provided a
means for these individuals to express themselves, it also allows the chance to post bad self-impressions about one's looks and traits which later validates insecurities and low self-concept.

7. Contribute to a Declining Mental Health

Severe exposure and engagement in the digital world can result to extreme loneliness and anxiety especially among teens. The inability to gain attention from the significant others results to
sadness and frustration. This is contributing a lot to a declining mental health as the individual is unable to overcome stress. Crimes arise due to this reality as they develop angst and heighten
emotional issues which they cannot resolve in a more mature manner.

According to the Royal Society for Public Health, YouTube tops the table as the most positive, with Instagram and Snapchat coming out as the most detrimental to young people’s mental
health and wellbeing. Based on the ratings young people gave to each platform for each of the health and wellbeing-related issues, the five most popular platforms were given a net average score
which were used to establish the league table rankings:

1. YouTube (most positive)

2. Twitter
3. Facebook
4. Snapchat
5. Instagram (most negative)

8. Self-Obsession

Constant exposure to the online world has evidently increased the incidence of narcissism. Many have become self-obsessed and self-absorbed as facilitated and promoted by the social media.
As social networking sites allow escape from the daily woes of life, expectations consequently arise. Users expect that there will be following and responses to their posts whether it is an image, a
quote, an emotional post evident through likes' 'shares' and 'tweets.' Individuals who submit themselves to the mentality propagated by these social networking sites have become preoccupied by
trying to produce their best photos and images, detailed account of their most recent activities as well as the best image of the cup of coffee they have bought from that high-end café with a location
posted on their Facebook, Instagram or Twitter accounts. All of these accounts have to do with themselves, what they are doing now, who they are with and what they feel now. Individuals have become
so engrossed with themselves.

The digital world has inspired individuals to be so amazed about the “me, myself and I” craze

Consequently the development of the social media has brought forth the introduction of intangible elements which become an extension of ourselves. Those are what we post online and what we keep offline which
become part of our digital possessions. Photos, emails, SMS, videos and the like have become vital reflections of our digital self .
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Reasons for Engaging in the Digital Hype

REASONS FOR ENGAGING IN THE DIGITAL HYPE

By Magalona, Sadsad, Cruz (2018)

The digital world offers a unique experience which makes great impact on the way individuals express themselves as largely the same sentiment is driven by the following basic reasons:

1. Every individual desires to meet the expectation of the significant others in his/her life. Many would not readily post their photos online but will edit or filter the same to ensure that they look a lot
better in their digital images. The use of several online applications (Apps) facilitates this need;
2. Online posting of objects as well as current statuses is expected to receive responses and reactions from their followers as in the form of ‘likes’ and ‘shares.’ These are gestures that boost their
ego and self esteem
3. As Abraham Maslow had stated in the 'Hierarchy of Needs' (1943), each has the need to 'belong.' Everyone desires to blend in.' And so when everyone on the social media poses photos of
his/her food then all others follow the trend. Uploading of these images creates a feeling of being part of the hype.
4. The digital web provides individual with much more freedom to express themselves in varied forms. Whether verbally or non-verbally these digital platforms create an avenue to communicate
and express ideas and views just about everything.
5. The digital world allow the individual to achieve his or her ‘ideal self’ whether it is physical such as those provided by online applications to improve their images physically. And it could also be
emotionally as platform users can express themselves by 'Vlogging' or even Blogging.' Whichever manner results in an emotional experience that makes one feel good about his or her self.
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Online Disinhibition
ONLINE DISINHIBITION: THE CAUSES

By: Palean, Nazario, Valero and Descartin (2018)

The online disinhibition effect describes the loosening of social restrictions and inhibitions that are normally present in face-to-face interactions that takes place in interactions on the Internet. John
Suler posits six factors that often cause online disinhibition. They are as follows

1. DISSOCIATIVE ANONYMITY ("People Don't Know Me")

This is the confidence you feel every time you anonymously engage in online activities. Because you can easily disassociate your online identities from your offline ones, you can be relatively
carefree (or careless, even) in your virtual behavior, resulting in a more unfiltered, even harmful, you. Arguing online in the comments sections, for example, emboldens you to use profanities
and even hate slurs because none of them really knows you personally.
#ANONYMITY - the act of communicating wherein the sender does not openly reveal his/her identity

2. INVISIBILITY ("People Can't See Me")

In this factor, you can sometimes intentionally misrepresent yourself to come across as an entirely different person. Unlike in real conversations, invisibility enables you to alter your virtual
avatar's personality and even appearance, sometimes to lure attractive people into taking notice of you, or just to generally avoid scrutiny when you participate online. In hiding your true
physical and personal attributes away, you are effectively freeing yourself up from the baggage of having to present yourself as you truly are.
#PSEUDONYMITY - same as anonymity, but the sender takes on alternate personas

3. ASYNCHRONICITY ("See You When I See You")

Time is a very important element in face to face communications. This is why meetings at work are scheduled based on the attendees availability. Conversely, you have the luxury of time
delay in the virtual world. Every time you send an e-mail or even a message on Facebook, time is on your side. You can compose, structure, and edit it in a span of several minutes,
sometimes an hour or even more. Even your posts in online forums can be made to read smarter than they are originally, thanks to web references you can access in an instant. Another plus
is that you do not even need to be physically present in your virtual engagements. In effect, this makes you more relaxed in dealing with people online with the pressures of real world
communication removed completely

4. SOLIPSISTIC INTROJECTION ("It's All in The Mind")

We essentially communicate online through typewritten words. Verbal cues, though ever-present are not the accepted norm in interacting virtually. In this regard, you unconsciously recite in
your head both the messages you send and those deployed your way. You play casting director for these voices, imagining how the pitch or intonation would be if spoken out loud. Ultimately,
you think of your voice when you read the messages. And because the words are filtered through you, you feel less intimidated in communicating thinking it is all happening in your own
personal psychic domain. This is why acquaintances are sometimes very talkative to each other virtually but do not actually speak let alone interact much in real life.

5. DISSOCIATIVE IMAGINATION ("It's All a Play")

Simply put, this is the faulty belief that online interaction is a game, and whose rules you can easily break with no perceived implications. Buoyed by the assumption that your real-life identity
and digital avatars are separate entities and that the cyberspace is but an outlet for escape (like movies), you sometimes resort to doing unspeakable things you normally wouldn't in real life.
This notion often rationalizes criminal behavior online, particularly identity theft or even sexual harassment

6. MINIMIZATION OF STATUS AND AUTHORITY ("Your Rules Don't Work Online")

Have you ever stumbled upon one of your professors Facebook profiles and it suddenly occurred to you how powerless he/she seems to look? If yes, then this is because the internet, more
than just providing users a disinhibited space, levels the playing field, with no one personality having unanimous clout over others. Perhaps your professor, or even a politician for that matter, is
influential outside the realm of the cyberspace, but within it, he/she, along with the great many, still belong under the same classification: user. Take notice how ordinary individuals suddenly
have the guts to engage influential people in arguments on social media. Online, people are perceived to