PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

ME304PC
B.TECH. II YEAR I SEM
LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY
SHANBAUG NAVEEN
ASST.PROF
M.TECH (CAD/CAM), SIEI, MECH DEPT

FACULTY SIGN HOD/ME

 UNIT-1
Casting

There are many steps and things to consider when manufacturing products through the technique
of casting and the casting process. This guide explains the process involved with casting and
benefits of using this popular forming method.

In casting, a molten metal or other material fills a mold , then cools and hardens into a desired
shape. However, a manufacturer must plan out post-cast steps to ensure effective results. Proper
care should be taken at each step to deliver a final product that maintains proper quality and
integrity

Benefits of the Casting Process

Casting is but one method of metal shaping, as there are many other options, including welding,
forging, stamping, extrusion and machining. Before settling on casting, you should first
understand the benefits that the process provides over these other techniques. The casting
process:

 Ability to create complex geometries: Liquid metal facilitates construction of intricate

designs, in either simple or complex geometries.
 Fast production cycles: Once the casting tools are in order, very little maintenance and
downtime is necessary. This makes casting an option for mass production applications.
 Workability of hard metals: Casting is often one of the only viable manufacturing
processes for hard metals that are not malleable enough for solid state shaping.
 Reduced assembly: Oftentimes, casting can creatle items in a single, complete
component, eliminating the need to assemble multiple pieces.
 Minimal sizing restraints: Casting can create extremely small to extremely large parts,
even up to 200 tons.
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 Versatile surface textures: Casting molds can be designed to deliver smooth, semi-
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smooth or rough surface textures.

Types of Casting Processes

There are several different casting methods, each of which requires slight variations in the
process. The categorization of the different types of processes are based on the material used to
make the molds. Casting options include.

 Sand casting
 Plaster casting
 Shell molding
 Wax casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

Basic Steps in Casting Process

While each casting method creates unique challenges and process enhancements, all techniques
retain the same basic steps. These steps are:

 Patternmaking
 Coremaking
 Molding
 Melting and pouring
 Finishing
 Patternmaking

To create a casting mold, a manufacturer must first design a physical model. The process of
fabricating this model is called patternmaking. Using computer-assisted design (CAD) systems,
the manufacturer designs dimensions and geometry of a mold, and then packs an aggregate
material, such as sand, concrete or plastic, around the pattern. Once the pattern is removed, the
mold cavity in the sand can be filled.

Core making

Many part designs require the inclusion of cores in the casting mold. Cores are solid materials
placed inside the mold cavity to create interior surfaces of a casting. For example, a metal
pipefitting will require a cylindrical core inside the mold cavity to create the hollow construction
of the component's interior.

Molding

At this point, the manufacturer can create the casting mold. A material such as sand, plaster or
wax is used in expendable mold casting, whereas metal and other durable materials are used in
non-expendable mold casting techniques. The material fills the casting mold model and is
allowed to harden, at which point the manufacturer removes it from the cavity and the casting of
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the component can now begin.

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Melting and Pouring

Metal must be properly melted prior to being placed in the mold. Typically, this is done by using
what is known as a crucible. Crucibles are containers made of porcelain or another melt-
resistance substance in which a manufacturer can heat a metal beyond its melting point. Once
properly melted, the molten metal is poured into the casting mold to cool and harden.

Finishing

Because metal can sometimes fill in cracks in a casting mold or sprues, the pouring channel for
the mold, manufacturers must often finish the metal following casting. This can be accomplished
through a variety of finishing techniques, including sanding, grinding and buffing. Once proper
appearance and surface texture has been achieved, further post-treatment processes such as
painting or electroplating may be necessary for some applications.

Things to Consider When Casting

There are numerous factors that need to be considered to ensure proper size, shape and integrity
of the final component. Some of these factors include:

 Type of material: each metal and casting material retains specific characteristics
(hardness, melting point, density, etc.) that will affect the casting process.
 Cooling rate: This factor depends largely on the type of material from which you craft
the mold. Proper cooling is necessary to minimize gas porosity and other negative
properties that can result from a fast cooling rate.
 Shrinkage: As castings cool, they shrink. To ensure proper component size and integrity,
you can utilize risers to feed additional molten metal into the cavity. An oversized mold
may also be useful in some applications.

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Advantages:

Casting has following advantages over other manufacturing process.

 It can create any complex structure economically.

 The size of object doesn’t matter for casting.
 The casting objects have high compressive strength.
 All structure made by casting has wide range of properties.
 This can create an accurate object.
 All material can be cast.
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 It creates isotropic structure.

  It is cheapest among all manufacturing processes.
 Composite component can be easily made by casting.
Disadvantages:

Along these advantages, casting has following disadvantages.

 It gives poor surface finish and mostly requires surface finish operation.
 Casting defects involves in this process.
 It gives low fatigue strength compare to forging.
 It is not economical for mass production.
Cope:

The upper part of moulding flask is known as cope.

Drag:

The lower part of moulding flask is known as drag.

Cheeks:

When the moulding flask made into more than two parts, the intermediate parts are known as cheeks.
These are used in complex casting.

Pattern:

Pattern is replica of object to be created. It is made by either wood, wax or other suitable material. It is
placed into moulding flask and sand rammed over it which forms an object cavity into sand.

Pouring Basin:

It is a funnel shape cavity at the top of the mould. The metal is poured into pouring basin from
where it is supplied at different parts of mould.

Runner:

Runner is a horizontal passage of molten metal. It connects sprue to getting system. Normally it
is situated at lower half of mould.
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Riser:

Riser is used as reservoir of molten metal when pouring of molten metal has stopped. When the
cavity is filled by molten metal, the pouring is stopped which allows solidifying object. During
solidification, volumetric shrinkage takes place which reduces the desire size and shape of
object. The riser is provided into the mould which supplies the molten metal to remove effect of
volumetric shrinkage during solidification. These are further divided into top riser, blind riser,
side riser etc.

Sprue:

It is a passage which connects pouring basin to the runner. It controls the flow of molten metal
from pouring basin. It is tapered in shape.

Ingate :

It is the entry point through which molten metal enters into the actual mould cavity.

Core:

Core is used to cast hollow cavity. It is also a sand structure and placed at right place into mould
cavity where hollow part is to be created. The metal poured into mould cavity does not fill the
part at which core is placed thus form a hollow cavity

Chaplets:

These are supporting components of core. These used to support and hold the core into mould
cavity. These protect the core from various forces encounter in casting.

Chills:

Chills are generally solid metal pieces which are placed into cavity to increase cooling rate.
Mainly it is used to create direction solidification of molten metal. They have high thermal
conductivity.

Vents:

These are small passages made in mould which allow to escape the gases during solidification.
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Pattern

In casting, a pattern is a replica of the object to be cast, used to prepare the cavity into which
molten material will be poured during the casting process

Patterns used in sand casting may be made of wood, metal, plastics or other materials. Patterns
are made to exacting standards of construction, so that they can last for a reasonable length of
time, according to the quality grade of the pattern being built, and so that they will repeatably
provide a dimensionally acceptable casting

Patternmaking

The making of patterns, called patternmaking (sometimes styled pattern-making or pattern

making), is a skilled trade that is related to the trades of tool and die making and moldmaking,
but also often incorporates elements of fine woodworking. Patternmakers (sometimes
styled pattern-makers or pattern makers) learn their skills through apprenticeships and trade
schools over many years of experience. Although an engineer may help to design the pattern, it is
usually a patternmaker who executes the design

10 Different Types of Patterns in Casting

1.Single Piece Pattern

Single piece pattern, also called solid pattern is the lowest cost casting pattern. It is very suitable
for simple process, and small scale production and the large casting manufacturers prefer it
because this kind of casting pattern make casting process just needing simple shapes, flat
surfaces like simple rectangular blocks. One flat surface is used to separate planes.
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2.Two-Piece Pattern

Two-piece pattern also called split piece pattern is a common casting pattern for intricate casting.
This kind of pattern has parting planes which may have flat or irregular surface, and the exact
position of the plane was decided by the shape of the casting. There are two pieces of the split
piece pattern. One of the parts is molded in drag and another is molded in cope. And the cope
part always has dowel pins. With the dowel pins, the two halves of split piece pattern can be
aligned

3.Multi Piece Pattern

Multi piece pattern is a good solution for complex designs which is hard to make. This kind of
pattern includes 3 or more pattern which helps you achieve mold making.
Take the three-piece pattern as an example. The pattern is made of the top, bottom, and middle
parts. The top part is cope, the bottom part drag, and the middle parts are called as checkbox.

4.Match Plate Pattern

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Match plate pattern has a metallic plate to divide the cope and drag areas into the opposite face
of the plate. This kind of pattern nearly has no hard work and can provide high output. It is
widely used in the manufacturing industry, and usually has an expensive cost, precise casting and
high yield. And this kind of casting pattern is widely used in metal casting like aluminum

5.Gate Pattern

Gate pattern can consist of one or more patterns into a pattern molding pattern. It is designed for
the mold which makes multiple components at one casting process. The gates are used to
combine the different patterns, and runners to create a flow way for the molten materials. When
the gates and runners have already attached, the patterns are loosing. This kind of pattern is
expensive, and it is usually used for small castings.

6.Skeleton Pattern

Skeleton pattern is large in size, and it is a good choice for the casting which has the simple size
and shape. This kind of casting pattern is expensive and not versatile. It is not the best choice
from the aspect of economic, while is very efficient in extra sand removing. If you want to use
this casting pattern you should highlight the wood frames when you casting. The skeleton pattern
is widely used in the industries of pit or floor welding.
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7.Sweep Pattern

Sweep pattern uses a wooden board with proper size to rotate along one edge to shape the cavity.
This kind of casting pattern creates a cavity in the vertical direction and the base of it is attached
with sand, and it also creates casting in a very short time, and it has consisted of three parts:
spindle, base and sweep which also called wooden board.

8.Loose Piece Pattern

Loose piece pattern can help manufacturers remove one piece of solid pattern which is above or
below the parting plane of the mold. This kind of pattern needs extra skilled labor work, so it is
expensive casting pattern in castings

9.Cope and Drag Pattern

Just like its name, cope and drag pattern has consisted of two separate plates, and it has two parts
which can be separately molded on the pattern molding box, and these parts create the cavity.
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This kind of pattern has a bit similar with the two-piece pattern and is usually used in large
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casting.
10.Shell Pattern

Shell pattern is a good choice to create hollow shaped structure. It parts along the center and
dowels the resultant halves.

Types of pattern materials, advantages and disadvantages

Pattern Materials:

Pattern materials are different types according to the output required, pattern materials are used
in making patterns. According to the required dimensions and surface finish pattern
patt materials are
selected.

Different types of materials are:

Wood Patterns:

Wood is the most common material used in making a pattern, this type of material is easy in
making patterns. to make wood into a pattern,it should dried properly.

Advantages of Wood
od Patterns:

 Wood is highly available in nature and less cost.

 Making patterns is easy.
 We can obtain to a high surface finish easily with less effort.
 Wood can construct into different forms easily.
 They have comparatively more strength to weight ratio.
 This
his type of pattern material is easy to machine.
Disadvantages of Wood Patterns:
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 Wood material is not high accuracy in dimensions we required.

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 This material should handle with care and smooth.

  It has less wear resistance.
 Wood has low abrasion resistance.

Metal Patterns:

Metal patterns are one of the strong and hard patterns and these patterns are more costly than
different types pattern materials.

Advantages of Metal Patterns:

 Metal patterns are comparatively more strong.

 We can obtain high surface finish.
 Metals can obtain to high dimensional accuracy.
 They are more resistant to wear, corrosion etc..
 Metals can be stored for long periods than wood.

Disadvantages of Metal Patterns:

 Metals are more weight, it is not easy to handle.

 They are high in cost compared to many pattern materials.
 Pattern should take care to avoid any damages like corrosion, deformation etc.

Plastic Patterns:

A plastic material is high in use, but they are not safe and not used at high temperatures.

Advantages of Plastic Patterns:

 Pattern making with plastic is low in weight.

 Plastic can obtain to high accuracy in dimensions.
 This type of patterns are strong and smooth.
 Plastic patterns have not to effect from nature like corrosion, rust, moisture etc..
 This type of patterns has a long life without protection.
 Handling is easy.
Disadvantages of plastic Patterns:

 Plastic patterns are not useful at higher temperatures.

 Stronger plastic materials are more costly to use.
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Pattern Allowances In Casting:

 A pattern is a replica of the casting but has slightly larger dimensions.

 This change in pattern in casting for various reasons is known as pattern allowance in casting.

Why the Pattern Allowances in Casting Affected?

 Sometimes the patterns are not the same size as the desired casting size. To Compensates for
the patterning process, allowances are made in the pattern, removing the pattern, dimensional
and structural changes during casting.
 The different types of pattern allowances in casting are as follows. Shrinkage allowance is
the most common of possible castings for casting.

Casting of Pattern Allowances

 Casting is one of the earliest manufacturing processes known to human beings.

 In casting, molten metal is solidified to the desired shape and size.
 Castings are often the cheapest and most direct way of shaping the metal.
 Practically, any intricate shape can be produced.
 With a normal sand casting process, the dimensional accuracies and surface finish
is poor.
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 Defects are inevitable.

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  It can also be classified into solid shrinkage and liquid shrinkage.
 The volume decreases during the process of metal freezing called solid shrinkage.

Allowance in Casting Process

Draft Allowance

 The leading edge likely breaks or is damaged during removal from the mold. In order to be
avoided, the taper is to allow on the pattern and easily remove from the edge of the mold.
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 This taper has some angles called draft angles. The draft angle depends on the type of
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molding, height, and complexity of the pattern.

Finishing or Machining Allowance:
 They produce chunks using the sand casting method. The surface finish of the part will be
poor.
 So it avoids, during the machining process, the molding of the product is twisted or ground
together on the surface to improve the surface finish, removing some substantial amount of
metal from the mold part.
 To compensate for this, machining or finishing allowances are given in the casting. This
allowance is added together to the original shape of the pattern.
Based on the amount of allowance added to the pattern,

 Type of the machining process

 Material used
 Accuracy required
 Molding method
It varies from 2 mm to 15 mm depending on the size and material of the part. For very large
machining allowances to increase the cost of molten metal and to remove more of the metal from the
mold part by machining

Shake or Wrapping Allowance:

 The pattern is removed from the mold cavity, sometimes wrapping the pattern for easy
removal from the cavity. In this case, the final mold cavities are enlarged.
 So to compensate for the enlargement, the amplitude of the pattern must be reduced. This is
called a shake or wrapping allowance.
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Distortion or Camber Allowance:

 When the mold is in a cooling process, tension is developed into a solid metal due to uneven
metal thickness or over-cooling to allow for casting.
 These stresses can induce deformation or bend in the castings. This can be avoided by
initially distorting patterns in the opposite direction.
 The thickness of the casting part is uneven. Therefore, the solidification process section does
not have a uniform thermal stresses.
 Therefore those castings are deformed. Avoid that, the chamber provided in the opposite
direction.
A pattern is always made larger than the required size of the casting, considering the various
allowances. These are the allowances that are usually provided in a pattern.

Pattern Allowances

This change in the pattern is due to when the cast solidifies; it shrinks at some limit due to the metal
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shrinkage property at the time of cooling. So to compensate for this, a pattern is made a little bigger.
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These slight changes in the pattern are known as pattern allowance.

Types of Pattern Allowances

Pattern allowances are five types shrinkage, draft, machining, deformation, and rapping allowances.

Draft Allowance in Casting

The leading edge may break off during the removal of the cast. In order to permit removal and reduce
the defects, the vertical faces of the pattern are tapered at a small angle known as the draft angle. This
provision is known as draft allowance. The inner surface pattern required more draft than the outer
surface.

Casting Allowances

There are five types of casting allowances are there, and those are:

 Shrinkage Allowance.
 Machining Allowance.
 Draft Allowance.
 Shake Allowance.
 Distortion Allowance.
Shrinkage Allowance in Casting

It is defined in DIN EN 12890 and specifies the difference in length of cast parts between casting
mold and casting. Only linear shrinkage is taken into account. It depends on the type of casting
material, construction as well as stability of the mold during solidification and shrinkage.

Steel Casting Shrinkage Allowance

Cast steel, for example, will shrink about ¼ in. per foot and produce rough-looking castings.
Shrinkage allowances are known for various metals and an experienced mold designer will take
the shrinkage into account when designing a mold.
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Pattern Shrinkage Allowance

Patternmakers correct for solidification shrinkage and thermal contraction by making the mold
cavity oversized. The amount by which mold is made larger relative to the final casting size is
called pattern shrinkage allowance.

Cast Iron Shrinkage Allowance

For grey cast iron, shrinkage allowance is given from 6.95 to 10.5mm/m. For white cast iron and
steel, it is given up to 20.8 mm/m. For brass, it is given up to 15.3 mm/m

Moulding Sand And Types

The Moulding sand is also known as foundries sand, this sand is commonly used for
making moulds. Natural sand located on the bed and banks of rivers gives a larger source,
although high-quality silica sand is also mined.

The sand is chemically Si02, silicon dioxide in a granular manner. Ordinary river sand
contains a percentage of clay, moisture, non-metallic impurities and traces of magnesium
and calcium salts besides silica grains. After appropriate treatment, this sand is used to
make a mould

Types of Moulding Sand

Following are the 8 different types of moulding sands:

1. Greensand
2. Dry sand
3. Loam sand
4. Facing sand
5. Backing sand
6. System sand
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7. Parting sand
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8. Core sand
1. Green Sand

Green sand is a sand or sandstone which has a greenish colour. it is a mixture of silica sand with
18 to 30% clay, having total water of 6 to 8%. It is soft, light and porous with clay and water
furnishing the bond for green sand.

In green sand, It is slightly wet when squeezed by hand. It has the ability to maintain the shape
and impression given to it under the pressure. The green sand can be easily available and it has a
low cost. The mould that is prepared in this sand is called green sand mould. It is commonly used
for the production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.

2. Dry Sand

The Green sand that has been dried or backed after the mould is made is called dry sand. They
are suitable for large castings. Moulds prepared in dry sand are known as dry sand moulds. If we
talk about the physical composition of dry sand, it is similar to green sand except for water.

3. Loam Sand

The Loam sand with 50% of clay is called loam sand. They are also suitable for large castings. It
is a mixture of sand and clay and water is present in such a quantity that it forms a thin plastic
paste. In these types of sand, moulding patterns are not used.

4. Facing Sand

It forms the face of the mould. The facing sand is used directly next to the patterned surface and
comes into direct contact with the molten metal when the molten metal is poured into the mould.
It has high strength and refractivity as it comes in contact with molten metal. It is made of clay
and silica sand in addition to unused sand.
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5. Backing Sand

The backing sand is also called floor sand used to back up the facing sand. It is an old and
frequently used moulding sand is used for backing purpose. It is sometimes called black sand
because of the addition of coal dust and burning due to in contact with the molten metal.

6. System Sand

In mechanical sand preparation and handling units, facing sand is not encountered. The sand that
is used is cleaned and reactivated by adding water, binder and special additives. And the sand we
get it is called system sand.

The system sand is used to fill the entire flask in the mechanical casting where machine
moulding is employed. The mould made of this sand has high strength, permeability and
refractivity.

7. Parting Sand

The parting sand is used to avoids sticking of green sand to the pattern. And also it allows in easy
removal of cope and drag. This parting serves the same purpose as dust. It is pure clay free silica
sand.

8. Core Sand

The core sand is the sand for making cores. It is also called oil sand because it is a mixture of
silica sand and core oil. Core oil is a mixture of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other
binding materials. For the sake of economy, pitch or flour and water can be used to make large
cores.

Properties of Moulding Sand

Good, well-prepared moulding sand must have the following properties:

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1. Refractoriness– It should be able to withstand high temperature.

 2. Permeability– Ability to allow gases, water vapour and air to pass through it.
3. Greensand strength– When the mould is formed of moist sand, it must have sufficient
strength, otherwise, the mould will break.
4. Good flowability– When it is arranged around a pattern in a moulding box, it must be
able to fill all nooks and corners, otherwise the impression of pattern in mould would not
be sharp and clear.
5. Good collapsibility– It should collapse easily after the casting has cooled down and has
been extracted after breaking the mould. It is particularly important in case of care
making.
6. Cohesiveness– Ability of sand grains to stick together. Without cohesiveness, the mould
will lack strength.
7. Adhesiveness– Ability of the sand to stick to other bodies. if the moulding sand does not
stick to the wall of moulding box, the whole mould will slip through the box.

Methods of Melting

Crucible melting

A crucible is a ceramic or metal container in which metals or other substances may be melted or
subjected to very high temperatures. While crucibles were historically usually made
from claythey can be made from any material that withstands temperatures high enough to melt
or otherwise alter its contents

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cupola operation

A cupola or cupola furnace is a melting device used in foundries that can be used to melt cast iron, Ni-resist iron and
some bronzes. The cupola can be made almost any practical size. The size of a cupola is expressed in diameters and can
range from 1.5 to 13 feet (0.5 to 4.0 m).[1] The overall shape is cylindrical and the equipment is arranged vertically, usually
supported by four legs. The overall look is similar to a large smokestack.

The bottom of the cylinder is fitted with doors which swing down and out to 'drop bottom'. The top where gases escape
can be open or fitted with a cap to prevent rain from entering the cupola. To control emissions a cupola may be fitted with
a cap that is designed to pull the gases into a device to cool the gases and remove particulate matter.

The shell of the cupola, being usually made of steel, has refractory brick and plastic refractory patching material lining it.
The bottom is lined in a similar manner but often a clay and sand mixture ("bod") may be used, as this lining is temporary.
Finely divided coal ("sea coal") can be mixed with the clay lining so when heated the coal decomposes and the bod
becomes slightly friable, easing the opening up of the tap holes.[3] The bottom lining is compressed or 'rammed' against the
bottom doors. Some cupolas are fitted with cooling jackets to keep the sides cool and with oxygen injection to make
the coke fire burn hotter.

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10 Types of Casting Defects

Types of Casting defects and their causes and remedies are mentioned below.

1) Misruns

Misrun iss a type of casting defect that occurs when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity and
thus leaves the unfilled portion in the mold cavity.

Causes

 The molten metal may have less fluidity.

 The temperature of molten metal is low.
 Pouring speed is slow.
 Cross section of the mold cavity is thin.
Remedies

 The pouring temperature should be high.

 Gating system should be modified.

2) Inclusions

When the metal is melted, the flux is added to it in order to remove the undesirable impurities
and oxides present in
n the metals.
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During the time of tapping, the slag should be property removed otherwise if it mixes with
molten metal, then it causes a defect called inclusions (slag). Also there are many other reasons
causes are mentioned below.
which are responsible for slag formation. These causes

Causes

 Improper gating system.

 Improper pouring of molten metal.
 Soft ramming.
 Core sand quality.
 Improper flux.
Remedies

 Modifying the gating system and pouring technique.

 Use the proper flux.
 Proper ramming of sand should be done.
 Superior sand should be used.

3) Cold shut

When the two portions of the molten metal flow together, there is a lack of fusion between them
due to premature solidification. This defect in casting is called cold shut.
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Causes

 This defect may occur due to lack of fluidity of molten metal.

 Faulty design.
 Less pouring temperature of metal

Remedies

 Design of the gating system should be improved.

 Maintaining the higher pouring temperature of molten metal

4) Shrinkage cavity

This defect is caused due to depression in the surface in the casting which is caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of liquid metal available in the last region to
freeze.

Causes

 This occurs due to a faulty gating system.

 Also due to improper chilling.
Remedies

 Gating system should be improved.

 Chilling system should be modified.
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5) Blow holes

Blow holes are like small cavities in a casting.

The holes that appear on the surface of the metal casting are known as open blow holes. While
the holes which occur inside the
he metal casting are termed as blow holes.

Causes

 sand.
This defect occurs due to unnecessary moisture content in the molding sand
 grain sand.
It occurs due to low permeability of sand and excessive fine grain
 Excessive binders also cause this defect in casting.
 Improper baked cores also lead to this defect.
Remedies

 Moisture content should be regulated.

 Cores should be baked properly.
 Cores and moulds should be vented properly.
 Binders should be used in the desired amount.
6) Porosity
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The porosity is a pin holes type defect seen in the casting. This defect is also called gas porosity
as hydrogen gas is responsible for this defect.

Generally the gases remain absorbed by the molten metal. But when the metal solidifies, its
solubility decreases and the gases are released which creates small holes throughout the casting.

You can see the schematic image of porosity below.

Causes

 This defect occurs due to low permeability of the molding sand as well as high moisture
content present in the sand.
 Gases dissolved in molten metal are also responsible.
 This defect may occur due to less amount of flux used in molten metal.
 Also high pouring temperature is responsible for porosity
Remedies

 Increase the proportion of flux.

 Proper venting should be done and moisture content of the molding sand should be
reduced.
7) Hot tearing

casting is restrained in early stages of

Hot tearing (also known as hot cracking) occurs when the casting
cooling after the solidification process

Causes
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 Lack of collapsibility of mold and sand core.

  Very hard ramming also causes this defect.
Remedies

 collapsibility of mold and sand cores should be improved.

 Soft ramming should be done
8) Hard spots

The hard spots are generally developed on the iron castings which are rich in silicon. This is due
to the chilling of those spots by the molding sand.

Causes

 Improper metal composition.

 Improper casting design.
Remedies

 Metall composition should be improved.

 Casting design should be improved

9) Warpage
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The deformation of the casted components takes place due to internal stress of the casting or due
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to different rate of solidification in different sections. This results in warpage.

warpage.
Causes

 Improper directional solidification.

 Large flat surface castings also cause warpage.
Remedies

 Directional solidification should be looked after properly.

 Casting design should be modified to break the continuity
10) Swells

Sometimes due to high pressure of the molten metal, the mold will enlarge slightly. Because of
this the size of cavity increases and so the final casting will be bulgy at that point. This defect is
called swells.

Causes

 Soft ramming causes this defect.

 Low strength of sand
d cores.
 Mold is not supported properly.
Remedies

 Harder ramming should be done.

 Strength of mold and sand cores should be increased.
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 Proper support should be provided to the mold.

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Principles of Gating

In the metal foundry, the gating system in casting is a metal pouring system that conducts
molten metal into the mold cavity. Metal flows down from the pouring basin into the sprue
and passes through the runner and gates before entering the mold cavity.

Gating system in casting

Designing a gating system requires careful consideration according to the technology, materials,
and castings.

This system determines the flow rate of metal to the mold cavity.

If the flow rate is too fast, there is a risk of corrosion while if the speed is too slow it can cause
the metal to be cool before filling the chamber, which directly affects the quality of the casting.
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The shape and size of the gating system in casting are properly arranged when making the mold.
If the gating system is not designed properly, it can cause severe casting defects.

Dm me for help: https://dareplayio.blogspot.com/2022/09/dareplay.html

Functions of gating system in sand casting

The gating system in casting is designed to serve the following 4 main goals:

 Fill the mold cavity with enough metal in the shortest time without having to increase the
metal temperature.
 The metal flows smoothly, minimizing turbulence that causes air trapping during casting.
 The gating system sets the appropriate temperature range so that during the metal cooling
process, shrinkage will occur in the gating system, not in the casting parts.
 Combined with metal impurities removal system.
Design requirements of the gating system

A well-designed gating system in casting should satisfy the following requirements:

 Good control of metal flow. No impact, no splashes, smooth and steady continuity.
 Do not carry slag, impurities and gases into the mold cavity.
 Fills the mold cavity quickly, does not reduce the dilution of metal.
 Controlling the temperature in the mold cavity to cool the metal stably.
 Capable of adding metal and not wasting much metal.
 Easy to disassemble after the casting has solidified.
 Economic and maximizing casting yield.
If the gating system is designed incorrectly, the following errors can occur:

 Oxidizing metals.
 Corrosive to mold.
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 Causing shrinkage of objects in the mold.

 Make metal penetrate the mold wall.
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  Cool uneven casting.
Gating system diagram

The gating system in sand casting includes:

1. Pouring basin or pouring cup

Pouring basin

The Pouring basin is the funnel-shaped inlet, located on top of the system, where metal is
poured from the ladles into the mold.

Pouring basin helps to regulate the flow rate of liquid metal and reduces turbulence at the sprue
entrance, and helps to separate sediment and slag before entering the sprue.
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2. Sprue

Sprue in gating system

Sprue casting is a vertical passageway from pouring basin down runner and gates. Liquid metal
going down the vertical sprue loses pressure but increases speed due to the effect of gravity.

The sprue cross section can be circular, square or rectangular (preferably circular). Sprue is
designed to taper down to avoid air aspiration. Bigger end above for metal pick-up, while
smaller end connects to runner.

The foot of the sprue is rotated at a right angle to the runner to prevent free fall of liquid metal,
known as the sprue well.
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3. Cross gate or runner

Runner in casting is a horizontal channel connecting the sprue well to the gates. Liquid metal
will flow from the sprue to the runner and fill the mold cavity appropriately. Runner has the
effect of slowing down the speed of liquid metal when it is free falling in a high speed sprue.

Runner must be filled with molten metal to prevent slag from entering the cavity and ensure
steady flow.

4. Ingate (or gate)

Ingate is the end of the path and where the mold cavity begins. It leads the liquid metal that
flows from the runner into the mold cavity. Depending on the characteristics of the casting, there
are different number of ingates.

There are two types of gates: big gate and small gate. The small gate is used for slowing solid
casting, while the large gate is for fasting solid casting.

The gate should not have sharp edges as they can crack during pouring so that the sand can be
caught in the molten metal into the mold cavity.

Types of gates in casting:

Gate is divided into 3 categories:

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Types of gate in casting

 Top gate: the gate is in the cope mold part.

The disadvantages of top gate are high metal flow turbulence, poor casting surface.

 Bottom gate: the gate is in the drag mold part. In the bottom gate, liquid metal fills the
lower part of the mold cavity and gradually increases into the mold wall.
The bottom gate has the advantage of less chaos and sand erosion than the top gate.

The downside of the bottom gate is that the metal flow can be clogged due to
solidification before the mold is full. The temperature range generated by the bottom gate
is difficult to reach the standard causing uneven solidification.

 Parting line side gate: is the gate located along the parting line. The compartment below
the parting line is filled with liquid metal through top gating, while the compartment
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above the parting line is filled with the bottom gating. This gate type solves the
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disadvantages of the two types above.

Types of gating system

There are two types of gating systems: Pressurized Gating System and Unpressurized Gating
System. Choosing the right casting system with the correct area ratio will define the quality of
the casting.

1. Pressurized Gating System

Pressurized gating system

The Pressurized gating system is a gating system whose cross-sectional surface area
decreases gradually towards the mold cavity (smaller than the narrowest downsprue-
runner area). The in-gate area is minimized to put pressure on the system. At the gates, the
flow rate of liquid metal is almost equal.
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Sprue is always full of metal creating back pressure, which reduces air aspiration.
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Here metal that is always running at high speeds becomes more chaotic and it is easy to create
eddy currents in gates leading to erosion.

This system gives special priority to injection molding with cast iron materials.

2. Un-Pressurized Gating System

Unpressurized gating system

The Un-Pressurized Gating System is a gating system whose total surface area of the doors
increases gradually towards the mold cavity (larger than the narrowest downsprue area).
Liquid metal flow at gates are different.

Gating ratio

Gating ratio is the ratio between the cross-sectional area of the sprue to the total cross-
36

sectional area of the runners to the total cross-sectional area of the ingates.
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The formula for the gating ratio is As: Ar: Ag.

With the Pressurized Gating System, the gating ratio is usually 1: 2: 1 or 1: 0.75: 0.5. This
system is called a “Gate control system” because ingates control the flow of the metal.

With the Unpressurized Gating System, the gating ratio is usually 1: 2: 2 or 1: 3: 3 or 1: 1: 3.

This system is called a “Choke control system” because the choke controls the flow of the
metal.

Production risers

Large integrated drilling and production facilities employ Dedicated Drilling Risers which have
been part of the industries practice for decades. In 1984 Conoco Hutton facility in the North Sea
was the first facility to use the top-tension riser system. In the Gulf of Mexico there are several
facilities using the dedicated drilling risers. The drilling risers’ work as an extension from the
wellbore to the drilling rig which is located on the floating production system. The typical riser
configuration considered consists of the subsea wellhead connector assembly, tapered stress
joint, drilling riser, tensioning joint, riser landing joint, hydro-pneumatic tensioning system and a
surface blow-out preventer. Risers systems have to sustain surface floater induced wave motions
and direct environmental in addition to functional loadings.

The production riser is the portion of the flowline that resides between the host facility and the
seabed adjacent to a host facility. Riser dimensions range from 3 to 12 in (76.2 to 304.8 mm). in
diameter. Riser length is defined by the water depth and riser configuration, which can be
vertical or a variety of wave forms.

Riser
Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for
shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts
of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally
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Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages.
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1. during the liquid state
2. during the transformation from liquid to solid
3. during the solid state
First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system. For the second
type of shrinkage risers are required. Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting
which is last to freeze. A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting and must be
able to feed the casting during this time.
Functions of Risers
Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
Allow mold gases to escape
Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact
Design Requirements of Risers
1. Riser size:
For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of (volume / surface area)2 of the riser
must be greater than that of the casting. However, when this condition does not meet the metal in
the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the
risers.
2. Riser placement:
the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively calculating the feeding
distance of the risers.
3. Riser shape:
cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical risers, although
considers as best, are difficult to cast. To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the
riser can be shaped as hemisphere
Riser Design
The riser is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of liquid metal for the casting to
compensate for shrinkage during solidification. The riser must be designed to freeze after the
main casting in order to satisfy its function Riser Function As described earlier, a riser is used in
a sand-casting mold to feed liquid metal to the casting during freezing in order to compensate for
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solidification shrinkage. To function, the riser must remain molten until after the casting
solidifies. Chvorinov’s rule can be used to compute the size of a riser that will satisfy this
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requirement. The following example illustrates the calculation. The riser represents waste metal
that will be separated from the cast part and re-melted to make subsequent castings. It is
desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be a minimum. Since the geometry of the riser is
normally selected to maximize the V/A ratio, this tends to reduce the riser volume as much as
possible Risers can be designed in different forms. The design shown in Figure below is a side
riser. It is attached to the side of the casting by means of a small channel. A top riser is one that
is connected to the top surface of the casting. Risers can be open or blind. An open riser is
exposed to the outside at the top surface of the cope. This has the disadvantage of allowing more
heat to escape, promoting faster solidification. A blind riser is entirely enclosed within the mold,
as in Figure below.
This process was patent in 20 century to make higher standards hollow castings. The first
centrifugal casting machine was invented by a British, A.G. Eckhardt in 1807. This process is
widely used for casting hollow pipes, tubes and other symmetrical parts.

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 UNIT-2
WELDING
Types Of Welding – Classification Of Welding Processes

Welding is a process of permanently joining two parts by the application of heat and (or)
pressure. Filler metal may be added to the joint depending on the welding process and the type of
joint

The American Welding Society (AWS) has recognized more than 50 different types of welding
processes, some of them are very popular among the industries such as Shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) or stick welding, Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) also known
as MIG/MAG welding process, Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or TIG Welding, Submerged
arc welding (SAW) and Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), etc. Whereas, some are very specific
and limited to a few industries such as Ultrasonic welding (USW) and Diffusion welding
(DFW), etc.

1. Pressure Welding Process

2. Fusion Welding Process
n the pressure welding process, joining is done by the application of external pressure or
force at the area of contact, which causes more or less plastic deformation of both contact
surfaces. The facing surfaces are heated to some extent in order to permit or facilitate permanent
bonding.
Usually, the heat used during the pressure welding process is much less than the melting point of
the base metal. Generally, the additional filler metal is not required during these types of welding
techniques. Resistance welding and Diffusion welding are examples of the pressure welding
process.
Whereas, In the Fusion welding process, joining is done by melting the base metals in the area of
contact. No external pressure or force is required during fusion welding processes and very often
filler metal is also used. The arc welding process is one of the most popular welding processes,
which belongs to the family of the fusion welding process. Commonly used fusion welding
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processes are
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1. Arc Welding
 SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding or Stick Welding)
 GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding or MIG welding)
 GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding or TIG Welding)
 SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
 FCAW (Flux Cored ARC Welding)
 PAW (Plasma Arc Welding)
 Carbon Arc Welding
 Stud Welding
2. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
3. Electron beam welding
4. Laser beam welding
5. Thermit Welding
6. Electroslag Welding
Some of the pressure welding processes are:
1. Resistance Welding
 Spot Welding
 Seam Welding
 Projection Welding
 Flash Welding
 Upset Welding
 Percussion Welding
2. Diffusion welding (DFW)
3. Friction welding (FRW)
4. Ultrasonic welding (USW)
5. Cold Pressure Welding
6. Forge welding
7. Explosion welding (EXW)
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Welding positions
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Welding cannot always be done in the most desirable position.

Welding is often done on structures in the position in which they are found and in the position
the part will be used.

Often that may be on the ceiling, in the corner, or on the floor.

Techniques have been developed to allow welding in any position. Some welding processes have
all-position capabilities, while others may be used in only one or two positions.

All welding can be classified according to the position of the workpiece or the position of the
welded joint on the plates or sections being welded.

The American Welding Society has defined the four basic welding positions as shown below.

 Flat position
 Horizontal position
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 Vertical position
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  Overhead position
 ny conversation around welding starts with a discussion on the welding position of the
weld face.

 A number is used to define the position, and an F for Fillet or G for groove refers to the
type of weld.

any conversation around welding starts with a discussion on the welding position of the
weld face.
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A number is used to define the position, and an F for Fillet or G for groove refers to the type of
weld.

An architect’s blueprints would indicate the welding symbol.

 1 refers to a flat position – either 1F or 1G

 2 refers to a horizontal position – either 2F or 2G
 3 is a vertical position – either 3F or 3G
 4 is an overhead position – either 4F or 4G
Flat Position (1G Or 1F)

This type of welding is performed from the upper side of the joint. The face of the weld is
approximately horizontal.

Flat welding is the preferred term; however, the same position is sometimes called downhand.

Note: The axis of a weld is a line through the length of the weld, perpendicular to the cross-
section at its center of gravity.

Flat Position Welding Procedures

To make good bead welds on a plate surface, the flare motion, tip angle, and position of the
welding flame above the molten puddle should be carefully maintained.

The welding torch should be adjusted to give the proper type of flame for the particular metal
being welded.

Narrow bead welds are made by raising and lowering the welding flare with a slight circular
motion while progressing forward.

The tip should form an angle of approximately 45 degrees with the plate surface. The flame will
44

be pointed in the welding direction.

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To increase the depth of fusion, either increase the angle between the tip and the plate surface or
decrease the welding speed.

The puddle size should not be too large because this will cause the flame to burn through the
plate.

A properly made bead weld, without a filler rod, will be slightly below the upper surface of the
plate. A bead weld with a filler rod shows a buildup on the surface.

Related read: Welding Beads: Types & Patterns

A small puddle should be formed on the surface when making a bead weld with a welding rod.
The welding rod is inserted into the puddle, and the base plate and rod are melted together. The
torch should be moved slightly from side to side to obtain good fusion. The size of the bead can
45

be controlled by varying the speed of welding and the amount of metal deposited from the
welding rod.
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Several types of joints are used to make butt welds in the flat position.

Tack welds should be used to keep the plates aligned. The lighter sheets should be spaced to
allow for weld metal contraction and thus prevent warpage.

The following table should be used for selecting the number of passes in butt welding steel
plates:

Plate thickness, in. Number of passes

1/8 to 1/4 1

1/4 to 5/8 2

5/8 to 7/8 3

7/8 to 1-1/8 4

The welding rod and torch tip position in making a flat position butt joint is shown in figure 11-
13.

The motion of the flame should be controlled to melt the sidewalls of the plates and enough of
the welding rod to produce a puddle of the desired size.

A molten puddle of a given size can be carried along the joint by oscillating the torch tip. This
will ensure both complete penetration and sufficient filler metal to provide some reinforcement
at the weld.
46

Care should be taken not to overheat the molten puddle. This will result in burning the metal,
porosity, and low strength in the completed weld.
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Horizontal Position (2F Or 2G)

A fillet weld on a tee joint in the horizontal

position

In horizontal welding, the weld axis is approximately horizontal, but the weld type dictates the
complete definition.

For a fillet weld – welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately horizontal
surface and against an approximately vertical surface.

For a groove weld – the face of the weld lies in an approximately vertical plane.

Butt welding – is a little more difficult to master than flat position. This is due to the tendency of
molten metal to flow to the lower side of the joint. The heat from the torch rises to the upper side
of the joint. The combination of these opposing factors makes it difficult to apply a uniform
deposit to this joint.

Align the plates and tack weld at both ends. The torch should move with a slight oscillation up
and down to distribute the heat equally to both sides of the joint, thereby holding the molten
metal in a plastic state. This prevents excessive flow of the metal to the lower side of the joint
and permits faster solidification of the weld metal. A joint in a horizontal position will require
considerably more practice than the previous techniques. It is, however, important that the
technique be mastered before passing on to other types of weld positions.
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 Horizontal
Butt Joint

Vertical Position (3F Or 3G)

In vertical position welding, the axis of the weld is approximately vertical.

When welding is done on a vertical surface, the molten metal tends to run downward and pile up.
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 Fillet weld on a lap joint in the vertical position

The flow of metal can be controlled by pointing the flame upward at a 45-degree angle to the
plate and holding the rod between the flame and the molten puddle (see above).

The manipulation of the torch and the filler rod keeps the metal from sagging or falling and
ensures good penetration and fusion at the joint.

Both the torch and the welding rod should be oscillated to deposit a uniform bead. The welding
rod should be held slightly above the centerline of the joint, and the welding flame should sweep
the molten metal across the joint to distribute it evenly.

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 Vertical Position Butt Joint

Butt joints welded in the vertical position should be prepared for welding in the same manner
required for welding in the flat position.

Overhead Position (4F Or 4G)

Overhead welding is performed from the underside of a joint.

In overhead welding, the metal deposited tends to drop or sag on the plate, causing the bead to
have a high crown.

The molten puddle should be kept small to overcome this difficulty, and enough filler metal
should be added to obtain good fusion with some reinforcement at the bead. If the puddle
50

becomes too large, the flame should be removed for an instant to permit the weld metal to freeze.
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When welding light sheets, the puddle size can be controlled by applying the heat equally to the
base metal and filler rod.

Fillet weld on a lap joint in the overhead

position

The flame should be directed to melt both edges of the joint. Sufficient filler metal should be
added to maintain an adequate puddle with enough reinforcement.

The welding flame should support the molten metal, and small welding avoids burning done
from one distribute it along the joint.

Only a small puddle is required, so a rod should be used. Care should be taken to control the heat
through the plates.

This is particularly important when welding is side only. 51

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Overhead Butt Joint

Positions For Pipe Welding

Pipe welds are made under many different requirements and in different welding situations. The
job dictates the welding position.

In general, the position is fixed, but it can be rolled for flat-position work in some cases.
Positions and procedures for welding pipe are outlined below.

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 Pipe
Inclined Fixed (45 degrees + 5 degrees) and Not Rotated During Welding

Horizontal Pipe Rolled Weld

Align the joint and tack weld or hold in position with steel bridge clamps with the pipe mounted
on suitable rollers. Start welding at point C (figure below), progressing upward to point B. When
53

point B is reached, rotate the pipe clockwise until the stopping point of the weld is at point C and
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again weld upward to point B. When the pipe is being rotated, the torch should be held between
points B and C, and the pipe rotated past it.

Diagram of Tac Welded Pipe on

Rollers

The position of the torch at point A is similar to that for a vertical weld. As point B is
approached, the weld assumes a nearly flat position, and the angles of application of the torch
and rod are altered slightly to compensate for this change.

The weld should be stopped just before the root of the starting point so that a small opening
remains. The starting point is then reheated so that the junction point area is at a uniform
temperature. This will ensure a complete fusion of the advancing weld with the starting point.

If the sidewall of the pipe is more than 1/4 in. (0.64 cm) in thickness, a multi-pass weld should
be made.

Horizontal Pipe Fixed Position Weld

After tack welding, the pipe is set up so that the tack welds are oriented approximately, as shown
below. After welding has been started, the pipe must not be moved in any direction.
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 Diagram of Horizontal Pipe Weld with Uphand
Method

When welding in the horizontal fixed position, the pipe is welded in four steps as described
below.

1. Starting at the bottom or 6 o’clock position, weld upward to the 3 o’clock position.
2. Starting back at the bottom, weld upward to the 9 o’clock position.
3. Starting back at the 3 o’clock position, weld to the top.
4. Starting back at the 9 o’clock position, weld upward to the top, overlapping the bead.
When welding downward, the weld is made in two stages. Start at the top (see below) and work
down one side to the bottom, then return to the top and work down the other side to join with the
previous weld at the bottom. The downward welding method is particularly effective with arc
welding since the higher temperature of the electric arc makes it possible to use faster welding
speeds. With arc welding, the speed is approximately three times that of the upward welding
method.
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Horizontal Pipe Weld with Downhand Method

Welding by the backhand method is used for joints in low carbon or low alloy steel piping that
can be rolled or are in a horizontal position. One pass is used for wall thicknesses not exceeding
3/8 in. (0.95 cm), two passes for wall thicknesses 3/8 to 5/8 in. (0.95 to 1.59 cm), three passes for
wall thicknesses 5/8 to 7/8 in. (1.59 to 2.22 cm), and four passes for wall thicknesses 7/8 to 1-1/8
in. (2.22 to 2.87 cm).

Vertical Pipe Fixed Position Weld

Pipe in this position, wherein the joint is horizontal, is most frequently welded by the backhand
method. The weld is started at the tack and carried continuously around the pipe.

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Vertical Pipe Fixed Position Weld with Backhand Method

Multipass Arc Welding

Root Beads

If a lineup clamp is used, the root bead (see below) is started at the bottom of the groove while
the clamp is in position. When no backing ring is used, care should be taken to build up a slight
bead on the inside of the pipe. If a backing ring is used, the root bead should be carefully fused to
it. As much root bead as the bars of the lineup clamp will permit should be applied before the
clamp is removed. Complete the bead after the clamp is removed.

Deposition of Root, Filler, and Finish Weld Beads

Filler Beads

Care should be taken that the filler beads (see diagram view B above) are fused into the root bead
to remove any undercut causal by the deposition of the root bead. One or more filler beads
around the pipe usually will be required.

Finish Beads

The finish beads (see diagram view C above) are applied over the filler beads to complete the
joint. Usually, this is a weave bead about 5/8 in. (1.59 cm) wide and approximately 1/16 in. (0.16
57
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cm) above the outside surface of the pipe when complete. The finished weld is shown in view D
above.

Aluminum Pipe Welding

For aluminum pipe, special joint details have been developed and are normally associated with
combination-type procedures. A backing ring is not used in most cases. The rectangular backing
ring is rarely used when fluids are transmitted through the piping system. It may be used for
structural applications in which pipe and tubular members are used to transmit loads rather than
materials.

Gas welding

Gas welding is a metal joining process in which fuel gases (gasoline) and oxygen are used to
weld and cut metals. It is also a metal joining process in which edge pieces of a metal that
required joining are heated at their interface by producing coalescence with one or more gas
58

flames such as oxygen and acetylene. the welding process can weld with or without the
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application of filler material to the joint.

These types of welding are also known as oxy-fuel welding, oxyacetylene welding, oxy welding.
It was developed in 1903 by some French engineers Edmond Fouche and Charles Picard. They
use pure oxygen to increase flame temperature instead of air. This flame helps in melting metals
and alloys e.g. steel.

In the working of gas welding, oxygen and acetylene burn at about 3,773k (3,500 degrees
Celsius). The basic two operations of oxyacetylene welding include welding and cutting;
welding operation is carryout when two-parent metals are heated to a temperature that produces a
shared pool of molten metal. It cools and produces a joint.

filler materials are sometimes added to the joint. It improves the strength of the joint and
produces a stronger joint even stronger than the parent metal. Whilst in oxyacetylene cutting,
there is a special cutting flame (obtain by releasing oxygen gas than acetylene in a torch valve).
The torch is used to heat metal to its kindling temperature. it reaches stages where metal burns
into a molten oxide as it flows out of the kerf as slag. It contains a mixing chamber, which helps
in mixing oxygen and acetylene before it releases as flame.

Applications of gas welding

The applications of gas welding include welding and cutting metals. Below is the used gas
welding:

 Joining of ferrous and nonferrous metals

 oxyacetylene welding can be used for joining carbon steels, alloy steels, cast iron,
aluminum, and its alloys, copper and its alloys, nickel, magnesium, etc.

 Widely used in automotive and aircraft industries.

 oxyacetylene welding applications are used in sheet metal fabricating plants. finally,

 Can join materials that require a relatively slow rate of heating and cooling.
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Advantages and disadvantages of gas welding
Advantages
Gas welding offers greater advantages than disadvantages. The following are the benefits of
oxyacetylene welding.

 Ability to weld ferrous and nonferrous metals together

 A neutral flame is used for welding and cutting both ferrous and nonferrous metals except
brass

 Equipment and tooling are inexpensive

 It does not require electricity before it works

 Gas welding equipment is portable

 It does not require specialized labor

Disadvantages
Despite the great benefits of gas welding, it offers some disadvantages that can be overlooked.
These include

 A slow rate of cooling, leading to slow production

 Not suitable for welding high strength steel

 Cannot reach arc welding temperature

 Not suitable for welding thick sections

Standard time and cost calculations

In industrial engineering, the standard time is the time required by an average skilled operator,
working at a normal pace, to perform a specified task using a prescribed method.[1] It includes
appropriate allowances to allow the person to recover from fatigue and, where necessary, an
60

additional allowance to cover contingent elements which may occur but have not been observed.
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Standard time = normal time + allowance

Where;

Normal time = average time × rating factor (take rating factor between 1.1 and 1.2)

Arc welding

Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by using electricity to create
enough heat to melt metal, and the melted metals, when cool, result in a binding of the metals. It
is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between a metal
stick ("electrode") and the base material to melt the metals at the point of contact. Arc welding
power supplies can deliver either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current to the work, while
consumable or non-consumable electrodes are used.

The welding area is usually protected by some type of shielding gas (e.g. an inert gas), vapor, or
slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or fully automated. First developed
in the late part of the 19th century, arc welding became commercially important in shipbuilding
during the Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the fabrication of steel
structures and vehicles.

To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power
supplies can be used. The most common classification is constant current power supplies and
constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the
arc, and the current is related to the amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are
most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded
metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies.
This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly
steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power
supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for
automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and
submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in
the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in
current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly
increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to
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its original separation distance.[1] Under normal arc length conditions, a constant current power
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supply with a stick electrode operates at about 20 volts.[2]

The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important role in welding. Consumable
electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use
direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In general, the
positively charged anode will have a greater heat concentration (around 60%).[3] "Note that for
stick welding in general, DC+ polarity is most commonly used. It produces a good bead profile
with a higher level of penetration. DC- polarity results in less penetration and a higher electrode
melt-off rate. It is sometimes used, for example, on thin sheet metal in an attempt to prevent
burn-through."[4] "With few exceptions, electrode-positive (reversed polarity) results in deeper
penetration. Electrode-negative (straight polarity) results in faster melt-off of the electrode and,
therefore, faster deposition rate."[5] Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten
arc welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as alternating current (AC). With
direct current however, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler
material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged
electrode makes deeper welds.[6] Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting
in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited
after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that
produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave, eliminating low-voltage time
after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.[7]

Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes, within a
10-minute period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For example, an 80 A
welder with a 60% duty cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes after 6 minutes of
continuous welding.[8] Failure to observe duty cycle limitations could damage the welder.
Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100% duty cycle.

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), which is
also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used
to strike an arc between the base material and a consumable electrode rod or stick. The electrode
rod is made of a material that is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered
with a flux that gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and provide a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as
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filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is very versatile, requiring little
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operator training and inexpensive equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the
consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux,
must be chipped away after welding.[9] Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding
ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the welding of cast
iron, nickel, aluminum, copper and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular
in a number of applications including repair work and construction.[10]

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called MIG (for metal/inert-gas), is a semi-
automatic or automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as both
electrode and filler metal, along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around the wire
to protect the weld site from contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is
most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current alternating current are used as well.
With continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers relatively high welding speeds; however
the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility in comparison to the
SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in
the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to steels. Today, GMAW is commonly used
in industries such as the automobile industry for its quality, versatility and speed. Because of the
need to maintain a stable shroud of shielding gas around the weld site, it can be problematic to
use the GMAW process in areas of high air movement such as outdoors.[11]

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is actually
a fine metal tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied shielding gas is
sometimes used, but often the flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from
the atmosphere. The process is widely used in construction because of its high welding speed and
portability.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is struck
beneath a covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the
atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself
and, combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working
conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes since the flux hides the arc and
no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large
products.[12] As the arc is not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only possible in the 1F
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(flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat groove) positions.

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Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten/inert-gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding
process that uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas
mixture, and a separate filler material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method
is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill
and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It can be used on nearly all weldable
metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when
quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and marine applications.[13]

A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to
make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more
critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable
current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW
process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW
except magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the
process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.[14]

Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag
welding, electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminum, and titanium alloys, are susceptible
to hydrogen embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the
water decomposes in the heat of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the
material, causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes for such materials, with special low-hydrogen
coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New electrodes can be used straight
from the can, but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be dried by baking
(usually at 450 to 550 °C or 840 to 1,020 °F) in a drying oven. Flux used has to be kept dry as
well.[15]

Some austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to intergranular corrosion.
When subjected to temperatures around 700 °C (1,300 °F) for too long a time, chromium reacts
with carbon in the material, forming chromium carbide and depleting the crystal edges of
chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in a process called sensitization. Such sensitized
64

steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds where the temperature-time was favorable
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for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.
Knifeline attack (KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels stabilized
by niobium. Niobium and niobium carbide dissolves in steel at very high temperatures. At some
cooling regimes, niobium carbide does not precipitate, and the steel then behaves like
unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide instead. This affects only a thin zone several
millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it difficult to spot and increasing the
corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole to about 1,000 °C
(1,830 °F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling rate
after this treatment is not important.[16]

Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can make
them corrosion-sensitive as well. There are also issues of galvanic corrosion if the electrode
composition is sufficiently dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are dissimilar
themselves. Even between different grades of nickel-based stainless steels, corrosion of welded
joints can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic corrosion when mechanically
joined.[17]

Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however,
with the use of new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with
welding can be greatly reduced.

Heat, fire, and explosion hazard

Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of
burns from heat and sparks is significant. To prevent them, welders wear protective clothing in
the form of heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme
heat, flames, and sparks. The use of compressed gases and flames in many welding processes
also pose an explosion and fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the amount of
oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.[18]

Eye damage
Auto darkening welding hood with 90 × 110 mm cartridge and 3.78 × 1.85 in viewing area

Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called arc eye in
65

which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the
eyes. Welding goggles and helmets with dark face plates—much darker than those
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in sunglasses or oxy-fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. In recent years, new
helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate which automatically self-darkens
electronically.[19] To protect bystanders, transparent welding curtains often surround the welding
area. These curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby workers from
exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.[20]

Inhaled matter

Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. Processes like flux-
cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding produce smoke containing particles of various
types of oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes,
with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. Additionally, many processes produce various
gases (most commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can prove dangerous if
ventilation is inadequate.

Electrical safety

While the open-circuit voltage of an arc welding machine may be only a few tens of volts up to
about 120 volts, even these low voltages can present a hazard of electric shock for the operators.
Locations such as ship's hulls, storage tanks, metal structural steel, or in wet areas are usually at
earth ground potential and operators may be standing or resting on these surfaces during
operating of the electric arc. Welding machines operating off AC power distribution systems
must isolate the arc circuit from earth ground to prevent insulation faults in the machine from
exposing operators to high voltage. The return clamp of the welding machine is located near to
the work area, to reduce the risk of stray current traveling a long way to create heating hazards or
electric shock exposure, or to cause damage to sensitive electronic devices.[21] Welding operators
are careful to install return clamps so that welding current cannot pass through the bearings of
electric motors, conveyor rollers, or other rotating components, which would cause damage to
bearings. Welding on electrical bus work connected to transformers presents a danger of the low
welding voltage being "stepped up" to much higher voltages, so extra grounding cables may be
required.
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Interference with pacemakers

Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating current component have been
found to affect pacemaker operation when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the
weld site.[22]

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Forge welding

Forge welding (FOW), also called fire welding, is a solid-state welding process that joins two
pieces of metal by heating them to a high temperature and then hammering them together. It may
also consist of heating and forcing the metals together with presses or other means, creating
enough pressure to cause plastic deformation at the weld surfaces.[3] The process is one of the
simplest methods of joining metals and has been used since ancient times, being a staple of
traditional blacksmithing. Forge welding is versatile, being able to join a host of similar and
dissimilar metals. With the invention of electrical welding and gas welding methods during
the Industrial Revolution, manual forge-welding has been largely replaced, although automated
forge-welding is a common manufacturing process

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. The first SAW patent was
taken out in 1935. The process requires a continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (metal
cored) electrode.[1] The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric
contamination by being "submerged" under a blanket of granular fusible flux consisting
of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and other compounds. When molten, the flux
becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. This thick
layer of flux completely covers the molten metal thus preventing spatter and sparks as well as
suppressing the intense ultraviolet radiation and fumes that are a part of the shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) process.[2]

SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode, however, semi-automatic

(hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are available. The process
is normally limited to the flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions[2] (although horizontal groove
position welds have been done with a special arrangement to support the flux). Deposition rates
approaching 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have been reported — this compares to ~5 kg/h (10 lb/h) (max)
for shielded metal arc welding. Although currents ranging from 300 to 2000 A are commonly
utilized,[3] currents of up to 5000 A have also been used (multiple arcs).
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Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. SAW strip-cladding
utilizes a flat strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm thick). DC or AC power can be used,
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and combinations of DC and AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant
voltage welding power supplies are most commonly used; however, constant current systems in
combination with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are available.

Welding head[

It feeds flux and filler metal to the welding joint. The electrode (filler metal) gets energized here.

Flux hopper[

It stores the flux and controls the rate of flux deposition on the welding joint.

Flux

The granulated flux shields and thus protects molten weld from atmospheric
contamination.[2] The flux cleans weld metal and can also modify its chemical composition. The
flux is granulated to a definite size. It may be of fused, bonded or mechanically mixed type. The
flux may consist of fluorides of calcium and oxides of calcium, magnesium, silicon, aluminium
and manganese comounds.[ Alloying elements may be added as per requirements. Substances
evolving large amount of gases during welding are never mixed with the flux. Flux with fine and
coarse particle sizes are recommended for welding heavier and smaller thickness respectively.

Electrode

SAW filler material usually is a standard wire as well as other special forms. This wire normally
has a thickness of 1.6 mm to 6 mm (1/16 in. to 1/4 in.). In certain circumstances, twisted wire
can be used to give the arc an oscillating movement. This helps fuse the toe of the weld to the
base metal.[4] The electrode composition depends upon the material being welded. Alloying
elements may be added in the electrodes. Electrodes are available to weld mild steels, high
carbon steels, low and special alloy steels, stainless steel and some of the nonferrous of copper
and nickel. Electrodes are generally copper coated to prevent rusting and to increase their
electrical conductivity. Electrodes are available in straight lengths and coils. Their diameters may
be 1.6, 2.0, 2.4, 3, 4.0, 4.8, and 6.4 mm. The approximate value of currents to weld with 1.6, 3.2
69

and 6.4 mm diameter electrodes are 150–350, 250–800 and 650–1350 Amps respectively.
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The flux starts depositing on the joint to be welded. Since the flux is not electrically conductive
when cold, the arc may be struck either by touching the electrode with the work piece or by
placing steel wool between electrode and job before switching on the welding current or by using
a high frequency unit. In all cases the arc is struck under a cover of flux. Flux otherwise is an
insulator but once it melts due to heat of the arc, it becomes highly conductive and hence the
current flow is maintained between the electrode and the workpiece through the molten flux. The
upper portion of the flux, in contact with atmosphere, which is visible remains granular
(unchanged) and can be reused. The lower, melted flux becomes slag, which is waste material
and must be removed after welding.

The electrode is continuously fed to the joint to be welded at a predetermined speed. In semi-
automatic welding sets the welding head is moved manually along the joint. In automatic
welding a separate drive moves either the welding head over the stationary job or the job
moves/rotates under the stationary welding head.

The arc length is kept constant by using the principle of a self-adjusting arc. If the arc length
decreases, arc voltage will increase, arc current and therefore burn-off rate will increase thereby
causing the arc to lengthen. The reverse occurs if the arc length increases more than the
normal.[5]

A backing plate of steel or copper may be used to control penetration and to support large
amounts of molten metal associated with the process.

Material applications

Carbon steels (structural and vessel construction)

Low alloy steels

Stainless steels

Nickel-based alloys

Surfacing applications (wear-facing, build-up, and corrosion resistant overlay of steels)

70

Advantages
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High deposition rates (over 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have been reported).

High operating factors in mechanized applications.

Deep weld penetration.

Sound welds are readily made (with good process design and control).

High speed welding of thin sheet steels up to 5 m/min (16 ft/min) is possible.

Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.[2]

Practically no edge preparation is necessary depending on joint configuration and required

penetration.

The process is suitable for both indoor and outdoor works.

Welds produced are sound, uniform, ductile, corrosion resistant and have good impact value.

Single pass welds can be made in thick plates with normal equipment.

The arc is always covered under a blanket of flux, thus there is no chance of spatter of weld.

50% to 90% of the flux is recoverable, recycled and reused.[7]

Limitations

Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and some nickel-based alloys.

Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions.

Normally limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes or vessels.

Requires relatively troublesome flux handling systems.

Flux and slag residue can present a health and safety concern.

Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.

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Requires backing strips for proper root penetration.

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Limited to high thickness materials

Resistance welding

Spot welding is a resistance welding method used to join two or more overlapping metal sheets,
fins, and some tubing. Usually
studs, projections, electrical wiring hangers, some heat exchanger fins,
power sources and welding equipment are sized to the specific thickness and material being
welded together. The thickness is limited by the output of the welding power source and thus the
equipment range due to the current required for each application. Care is taken to eliminate
required
trodes are simultaneously
contaminants between the faying surfaces. Usually, two copper electrodes
used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. When the current
is passed through the electrodes to the sheets, heat is generated due to the higher electrical
resistance where the surfaces contact each other. As the electrical resistance of the material
causes a heat buildup in the work pieces between the copper electrodes, the rising temperature
72

causes a rising resistance, and results in a molten pool contained most of the time between the
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des. As the heat dissipates throughout the work piece in less than a second (resistance
electrodes.
welding time is generally programmed as a quantity of AC cycles or milliseconds) the molten or
plastic state grows to meet the welding tips. When the current is stopped the copper tips cool the
spot weld, causing the metal to solidify under pressure. The water cooled copper electrodes
remove the surface heat quickly, accelerating the solidification of the metal, since copper is an
excellent conductor. Resistance spot welding typically employs electrical power in the form
of direct current, alternating current, medium frequency half-wave direct current, or high-
frequency half wave direct current.

If excessive heat is applied or applied too quickly, or if the force between the base materials is
too low, or the coating is too thick or too conductive, then the molten area may extend to the
exterior of the work pieces, escaping the containment force of the electrodes (often up to 30,000
psi). This burst of molten metal is called expulsion, and when this occurs the metal will be
thinner and have less strength than a weld with no expulsion. The common method of checking a
weld's quality is a peel test. An alternative test is the restrained tensile test, which is much more
difficult to perform, and requires calibrated equipment. Because both tests are destructive in
nature (resulting in the loss of salable material), non-destructive methods such as ultrasound
evaluation are in various states of early adoption by many OEMs.

The advantages of the method include efficient energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high
production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. When high strength
in shear is needed, spot welding is used in preference to more costly mechanical fastening, such
as riveting. While the shear strength of each weld is high, the fact that the weld spots do not form
a continuous seam means that the overall strength is often significantly lower than with other
welding methods, limiting the usefulness of the process. It is used extensively in the automotive
industry— cars can have several thousand spot welds. A specialized process, called shot
welding, can be used to spot weld stainless steel.

There are three basic types of resistance welding bonds: solid state, fusion, and reflow braze. In
a solid state bond, also called a thermo-compression bond, dissimilar materials with dissimilar
grain structure, e.g. molybdenum to tungsten, are joined using a very short heating time, high
weld energy, and high force. There is little melting and minimum grain growth, but a definite
73

bond and grain interface. Thus the materials actually bond while still in the solid state. The
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bonded materials typically exhibit excellent shear and tensile strength, but poor peel strength. In
a fusion bond, either similar or dissimilar materials with similar grain structures are heated to the
melting point (liquid state) of both. The subsequent cooling and combination of the materials
forms a “nugget” alloy of the two materials with larger grain growth. Typically, high weld
energies at either short or long weld times, depending on physical characteristics, are used to
produce fusion bonds. The bonded materials usually exhibit excellent tensile, peel and shear
strengths. In a reflow braze bond, a resistance heating of a low temperature brazing material,
such as gold or solder, is used to join either dissimilar materials or widely varied thick/thin
material combinations. The brazing material must “wet” to each part and possess a lower melting
point than the two workpieces. The resultant bond has definite interfaces with minimum grain
growth. Typically the process requires a longer (2 to 100 ms) heating time at low weld energy.
The resultant bond exhibits excellent tensile strength, but poor peel and shear strength.

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Thermit welding

Thermit welding is a process where heat generated from an exothermic chemical reaction is used for
the fusion. The chemical reaction aluminothermic process occurs between aluminum powder and
metal oxide.

This reaction generates a molten metal that acts as filler metal joining the workpieces on solidification.
No external source of heat, current, and filler material is utilized in thermit welding.

The process mainly used for joining steel pieces, here thermit comprises iron oxide and aluminum
powder. The ratio is 78% iron oxide and 22% aluminum powder. The ratio is decided by the chemical
reaction at the burning of aluminum:

8Al + Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4 Al2O3 + heat (4500˚C, 35 kJ/kg of mixture)

The combustion of iron and aluminum oxide generates heat up to 4500 Degree Fahrenheit. As these two
components have a different density, they become separated automatically. The liquid iron fills the
ceramic mold built around the welded parts and aluminum oxide slag floats up and removed subsequently
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The thermit process developed by Hans Goldschmidt in the mid-1890s and now used in the repair of steel
casting and forging. They design the thermite welding for joining railroad rails, steel pipes, steel wires,
a larger cast, and forged components

76
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 UNIT-3
Inert Gas Welding
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG)
and metal active gas (MAG) is a welding process in which an electric arc forms between a
consumable MIG wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s), which heats the workpiece metal(s),
causing them to fuse (melt and join). Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds
through the welding gun, which shields the process from atmospheric contamination.

The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A constant voltage, direct current power source
is most commonly used with GMAW, but constant current systems, as well as alternating
current, can be used. There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called
globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of which has distinct properties and
corresponding advantages and limitations.

Originally developed in the 1940s for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous materials,
GMAW was soon applied to steels because it provided faster welding time compared to other
welding processes. The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later, when
the use of semi-inert gases such as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments
during the 1950s and 1960s gave the process more versatility and as a result, it became a highly
used industrial process. Today, GMAW is the most common industrial welding process,
preferred for its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic
automation. Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas, such as shielded metal
arc welding, it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of moving air. A related process, flux
cored arc welding, often does not use a shielding gas, but instead employs an electrode wire that
is hollow and filled with

GMAW's basic technique is uncomplicated, with most individuals able to achieve reasonable
proficiency in a few weeks, assuming proper training and sufficient practice. As much of the
process is automated, GMAW relieves the weldor (operator) of the burden of maintaining a
precise arc length, as well as feeding filler metal into the weld puddle, coordinated operations
that are required in other manual welding processes, such as shielded metal arc. GMAW requires
only that the weldor guide the gun with proper position and orientation along the area being
welded, as well as periodically clean the gun's gas nozzle to remove spatter buildup. Additional
skill includes knowing how to adjust the welder so the voltage, wire feed rate and gas flow rate
are correct for the materials being welded and the wire size being employed.[citation needed]
77

Maintaining a relatively constant contact tip-to-work distance (the stick-out distance) is

important. Excessive stick-out distance may cause the wire electrode to prematurely melt,
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causing a sputtering arc, and may also cause the shielding gas to rapidly disperse, degrading the
quality of the weld. In contrast, insufficient stick-out may increase the rate at which spatter
builds up inside the gun's nozzle and in extreme cases, may cause damage to the gun's contact
tip. Stick-out distance varies for different GMAW weld processes and applications.[32][33][34][35]

The orientation of the gun relative to the weldment is also important. It should be held so as to
bisect the angle between the workpieces; that is, at 45 degrees for a fillet weld and 90 degrees for
welding a flat surface. The travel angle, or lead angle, is the angle of the gun with respect to the
direction of travel, and it should generally remain approximately vertical.[36] However, the
desirable angle changes somewhat depending on the type of shielding gas used—with pure inert
gases, the bottom of the torch is often slightly in front of the upper section, while the opposite is
true when the welding atmosphere is carbon dioxide.[37]

Position welding, that is, welding vertical or overhead joints, may require the use of a weaving
technique to assure proper weld deposition and penetration. In position welding, gravity tends to
cause molten metal to run out of the puddle, resulting in cratering and undercutting, two
conditions that produce a weak weld. Weaving constantly moves the fusion zone around so as to
limit the amount of metal deposited at any one point. Surface tension then assists in keeping the
molten metal in the puddle until it is able to solidify. Development of position welding skill takes
some experience, but is usually soon mastered.[citation needed]

Quality

Two of the most prevalent quality problems in GMAW are dross and porosity. If not controlled,
they can lead to weaker, less ductile welds. Dross is an especially common problem in
aluminium GMAW welds, normally coming from particles of aluminium oxide or aluminum
nitride present in the electrode or base materials. Electrodes and workpieces must be brushed
with a wire brush or chemically treated to remove oxides on the surface. Any oxygen in contact
with the weld pool, whether from the atmosphere or the shielding gas, causes dross as well. As a
result, sufficient flow of inert shielding gases is necessary, and welding in moving air should be
avoided.[38]

In GMAW the primary cause of porosity is gas entrapment in the weld pool, which occurs when
the metal solidifies before the gas escapes. The gas can come from impurities in the shielding gas
or on the workpiece, as well as from an excessively long or violent arc. Generally, the amount of
gas entrapped is directly related to the cooling rate of the weld pool. Because of its
higher thermal conductivity, aluminum welds are especially susceptible to greater cooling rates
and thus additional porosity. To reduce it, the workpiece and electrode should be clean, the
welding speed diminished and the current set high enough to provide sufficient heat input and
stable metal transfer but low enough that the arc remains steady. Preheating can also help reduce
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the cooling rate in some cases by reducing the temperature gradient between the weld area and
the base metal.[39]
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Safety

Arc welding in any form can be dangerous if proper precautions are not taken. Since GMAW GM
employs an electric arc, welders must wear suitable protective clothing, including heavy gloves
and protective long sleeve jackets, to minimize exposure to the arc itself, as well as intense heat,
sparks and hot metal. The intense ultraviolet radiation of the arc may cause sunburn-like
sunburn damage
to exposed skin, as well a condition known as arc eye,, an inflammation of the cornea, or in cases
of prolonged exposure, irreversible damage to the eye's retina retina. Conventional
welding helmets contain dark face plates to prevent this exposure. Newer helmet designs feature
a liquid crystal-type self darkens upon exposure to the arc. Transparent welding
type face plate that self-darkens
curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, are often used to shield
hield nearby workers and
[40]
bystanders from exposure to the arc.

Welders are often exposed to hazardous gases and airborne particulate matter. GMAW produces
smoke containing particles of various types of oxides,, and the size of the particles tends to
influence the toxicity of the fumes. Smaller particles present greater danger. Concentrations
ventilation is inadequate. Other precautions
of carbon dioxide and ozone can prove dangerous if ventilation
include keeping combustible materials away from the workplace, and having a working fire
extinguisher nearby

GMAW weld area:

1. Direction of travel
2. Contact tube
3. Electrode
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4. Shielding gas
5. Molten weld metal
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6. Solidified weld metal

7. Work piece

Tungsten Arc Welding

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), also known as tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is an arc
welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area and
electrode are protected from oxidation or other atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding
gas (argon or helium). A filler metal is normally used, though some welds, known as autogenous welds,
or fusion welds do not require it. When helium is used, this is known as heliarc welding. A constant-
current welding power supply produces electrical energy, which is conducted across the arc through a
column of highly ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma. TIG welding is most commonly used
to weld thin sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium,
and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing processes
such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality welds.
However, TIG welding is comparatively more complex and difficult to master, and furthermore, it is
significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A related process, plasma arc welding, uses a
slightly different welding torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated

Manual gas tungsten arc welding is a relatively difficult welding method, due to the coordination required
by the welder. Similar to torch welding, GTAW normally requires two hands, since most applications
require that the welder manually feed a filler metal into the weld area with one hand while manipulating
the welding torch in the other. Maintaining a short arc length, while preventing contact between the
electrode and the workpiece, is also important.[13]

To strike the welding arc, a high-frequency generator (similar to a Tesla coil) provides an electric spark.
This spark is a conductive path for the welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be
initiated while the electrode and the workpiece are separated, typically about 1.5–3 mm (0.06–0.12 in)
apart.

Once the arc is struck, the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a welding pool, the size of
which depends on the size of the electrode and the amount of current. While maintaining a constant
separation between the electrode and the workpiece, the operator then moves the torch back slightly and
tilts it backward about 10–15 degrees from vertical. Filler metal is added manually to the front end of the
weld pool as it is needed
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Welders often develop a technique of rapidly alternating between moving the torch forward (to advance
the weld pool) and adding filler metal. The filler rod is withdrawn from the weld pool each time the
electrode advances, but it is always kept inside the gas shield to prevent oxidation of its surface and
contamination of the weld. Filler rods composed of metals with a low melting temperature, such as
aluminum, require that the operator maintain some distance from the arc while staying inside the gas
shield. If held too close to the arc, the filler rod can melt before it makes contact with the weld puddle. As
the weld nears completion, the arc current is often gradually reduced to allow the weld crater to solidify
and prevent the formation of crater cracks at the end of the weld.[15][16]

Safety

Two red colored transparent welding curtains for shielding nearby persons from UV light
exposure during welding.

Welders wear protective clothing, including light and thin leather gloves and protective long sleeve shirts
with high collars, to avoid exposure to strong ultraviolet light. Due to the absence of smoke in GTAW, the
electric arc light is not covered by fumes and particulate matter as in stick welding or shielded metal arc
welding, and thus is a great deal brighter, subjecting operators to strong ultraviolet light. The welding arc
has a different range and strength of UV light wavelengths from sunlight, but the welder is very close to
the source and the light intensity is very strong. Potential arc light damage includes accidental flashes to
the eye or arc eye and skin damage similar to strong sunburn. Operators wear opaque helmets with dark
eye lenses and full head and neck coverage to prevent this exposure to UV light. Modern helmets often
feature a liquid crystal-type face plate that self-darkens upon exposure to the bright light of the struck arc.
Transparent welding curtains, made of a strongly colored polyvinyl chloride plastic film, are often used to
shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.[17]

Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter. While the process doesn't
produce smoke, the brightness of the arc in GTAW can break down surrounding air to form ozone and
nitric oxides. The ozone and nitric oxides react with lung tissue and moisture to create nitric acid and
ozone burn. Ozone and nitric oxide levels are moderate, but exposure duration, repeated exposure, and the
quality and quantity of fume extraction, and air change in the room must be monitored. Welders who do
not work safely can contract emphysema and oedema of the lungs, which can lead to early death.
Similarly, the heat from the arc can cause poisonous fumes to form from cleaning and degreasing
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materials. Cleaning operations using these agents should not be performed near the site of welding, and
proper ventilation is necessary to protect the welder.[17]
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Applications

While the aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding, the process is used
in a number of other areas. Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces, especially
xtensively in the manufacture of space vehicles and is also frequently
nonferrous metals. It is used extensively
employed to weld small-diameter,
diameter, thin wall tubing such as that used in the bicycle industry. In addition,
thin-wall
first pass welds for piping of various sizes.
GTAW is often used to make root or first-pass sizes In maintenance and
repair work, the process is commonly used to repair tools and dies, especially components made of
metal is not transferred directly across the electric arc like
aluminum and magnesium.[18] Because the weld metal
most open arc welding processes, a vast assortment of welding filler metal is available to the welding
engineer. In fact, no other welding process permits the welding of so many alloys in so many product
configurations. Filler metal alloys, such as elemental aluminum and chromium, can be lost through the
electric arc from volatilization. This loss does not occur with the GTAW process. Because the resulting
welds have the same chemical integrity as the original base metal or match the base metals more closely,
GTAW welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking over long time periods, making GTAW the
welding procedure of choice for critical operations like sealing spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial

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MIG welding

MIG welding is an arc welding process in which a continuous solid wire electrode is fed through
a welding gun and into the weld pool, joining the two base materials together. A shielding gas is
also sent through the welding gun and protects the weld pool from contamination. In fact, MIG
stands for metal inert gas. The technical name for it is gas metal arc welding (or GMAW), and
the slang name for it is wire welding.

The MIG process enables the artist, farmer/rancher, motorsports enthusiast or DIY welder to
make most types of fabrication and maintenance/repair welds on material from 24-gauge up to
1/2-inch thick. In addition to flexibility, many people turn to MIG welding because they've heard
that it's an easy process to learn. Most people can become competent MIG welders by following
some basic advice

Safety first

Before tackling any welding project, make sure you have the proper safety apparel and that any
potential fire hazards are removed from the welding area. Basic welding safety apparel includes
leather shoes or boots, cuff-less full-length pants, a flame-resistant and long-sleeve jacket,
leather gloves, a welding helmet, safety glasses and a bandana or skull cap to protect the top of
your head from sparks and spatter.

Miller offers a wide range of safety accessories for everyone from the occasional hobbyist to the
full-time professional welder. Your owner’s manual contains additional information about safety
apparel and precautions.

MIG welding setup

The first step before turning on the welder is to prepare your metal. Unlike stick and flux-cored
electrodes, which have higher amounts of special additives, the solid MIG wire does not combat
rust, dirt, oil or other contaminants very well. Use a metal brush or grinder and clean down to
bare metal before striking an arc. Make sure your work clamp connects to clean metal, too. Any
electrical impedance will affect wire feeding performance.

To produce strong welds on thicker metal, bevel the joint to ensure the weld fully penetrates to
the base metal. This is especially important for butt joints
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Friction welding

Friction welding (FRW) is a solid-state welding process that generates heat through
mechanical friction between workpieces in relative motion to one another, with the addition of a
lateral force called "upset" to plastically displace and fuse the materials. Because no melting
occurs, friction welding is not a fusion welding process, but a solid-state welding technique more
like forge welding. Friction welding is used with metals and thermoplastics in a wide variety of
aviation and automotive applications.

ISO norm of friction welding is EN ISO 15620:2019[ there is information about basic terms and
definitions and table of weldability of metals and alloys.

Friction stir welding

Friction stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process that uses a non-consumable tool to
join two facing workpieces without melting the workpiece material.[1][2] Heat is generated by
friction between the rotating tool and the workpiece material, which leads to a softened region
near the FSW tool. While the tool is traversed along the joint line, it mechanically intermixes the
two pieces of metal, and forges the hot and softened metal by the mechanical pressure, which is
applied by the tool, much like joining clay, or dough.[2] It is primarily used on wrought or
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extruded aluminium and particularly for structures which need very high weld strength. FSW is
capable of joining aluminium alloys, copper alloys, titanium alloys, mild steel, stainless steel and
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magnesium alloys. More recently, it was successfully used in welding of polymers.[3] In addition,
joining of dissimilar metals, such as aluminium to magnesium alloys, has been recently achieved
by FSW. Application of FSW can be found in modern shipbuilding, trains, and aerospace
applications.

It was invented and experimentally proven at The Welding Institute (TWI) in the UK in
December 1991. TWI held patents on the process, the first being the most descriptive

Principle of operation

Two discrete metal workpieces butted together, along with the tool (with a probe)

The progress of the tool through the joint, also showing the weld zone and the region affected by
the tool shoulder

The FSW is performed with a rotating cylindrical tool which has profiled pin (also known a
probe) having diameter smaller than the diameter of shoulder. During welding the tool is fed into
a butt joint between two clamped workpieces, until the probe pierces into the workpiece and
shoulder touches the surface of the workpieces. The probe is slightly shorter than the weld depth
required, with the tool shoulder riding atop the work surface.[13] After a short dwell time, the tool
is moved forward along the joint line at the pre-set welding speed.

Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant tool and the work pieces. This heat, along
with that generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic heat within the material,
cause the stirred materials to soften without melting. As the tool is moved forward, a special
profile on the probe forces plasticised material from the leading face to the rear, where the high
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forces assist in a forged consolidation of the weld.

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This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal
results in severe solid-state deformation involving dynamic recrystallization of the base material.

Induction welding

Induction welding is a form of welding that uses electromagnetic induction to heat the workpiece. The
welding apparatus contains an induction coil that is energised with a radio-frequency electric current. This
generates a high-frequency electromagnetic field that acts on either an electrically conductive or
a ferromagnetic workpiece. In an electrically conductive workpiece, the main heating effect
is resistive heating, which is due to induced currents called eddy currents. In a ferromagnetic workpiece,
the heating is caused mainly by hysteresis, as the electromagnetic field repeatedly distorts the magnetic
domains of the ferromagnetic material. In practice, most materials undergo a combination of these two
effects.

Nonmagnetic materials and electrical insulators such as plastics can be induction-welded by implanting
them with metallic or ferromagnetic compounds, called susceptors, that absorb the electromagnetic energy
from the induction coil, become hot, and lose their heat to the surrounding material by thermal
conduction.[1] Plastic can also be induction welded by embedding the plastic with electrically conductive
fibers like metals or carbon fiber. Induced eddy currents resistively heat the embedded fibers which lose
their heat to the surrounding plastic by conduction. Induction welding of carbon fiber reinforced plastics
is commonly used in the aerospace industry.

Induction welding is used for long production runs and is a highly automated process, usually used for
welding the seams of pipes. It can be a very fast process, as a lot of power can be transferred to a localised
area, so the faying surfaces melt very quickly and can be pressed together to form a continuous rolling
weld.

The depth that the currents, and therefore heating, penetrates from the surface is inversely proportional to
the square root of the frequency. The temperature of the metals being welded and their composition will
also affect the penetration depth. This process is very similar to resistance welding, except that in the case
of resistance welding the current is delivered using contacts to the workpiece instead of using induction.

Induction welding was first discovered by Michael Faraday. The basics of induction welding explain that
the magnetic field's direction is dependent on the direction of current flow. and the field's direction will
change at the same rate as the current's frequency. For example, a 120 Hz AC current will cause the field
to change directions 120 times a second. This concept is known as Faraday's Law.

When induction welding takes place, the work pieces heat up to under the melting temperature and the
edges of the pieces are placed together impurities get forced out to give a solid forge weld.[2]

Induction welding is used for joining a multitude of thermoplastics and thermosetting matrix composites.
The apparatus used for induction welding processes includes a radio frequency power generator, a heating
station, the work piece material, and a cooling system.
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The power generator comes in either the form of solid state or vacuum tube and is used to provide an
alternating current of 230-340 V or a frequency of 50–60 Hz to the system. This value is determined by
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what induction coil is used with the piece.

 coill to heat the work pieces. The capacitor matches the power
The heat station utilizes a capacitor and a coi
generators output and the induction coil transfers energy to the piece. When welding the coil needs to be
close to the work piece to maximize the energy transfer and the work piece used during induction
indu welding
is an important key component of optimal efficiency.

Some equations to consider for induction welding include

Explosion welding

Explosion welding (EXW)) is a solid state (solid-phase) process where welding is accomplished
by accelerating one of the components at extremely high velocity through the use
of chemical explosives.. This process is often used to clad carbon steel or aluminium plate with a
thin layer of a harder or resistant
more corrosion-resistant material (e.g., stainless
). Due to the nature of this process, producible
steel, nickel alloy, titanium,, or zirconium).
geometries are very limited. Typical geometries produced include plates, tubing and tube sheets
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Explosion welding 1 Flyer (cladding). 2 Resolidified zone (needs to be minimised for welding of
dissimilar materials). 3 Target (substrate). 4 Explosion. 5 Explosive powder. 6 Plasma jet.

Laser beam welding (LBW)

Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join pieces of metal or
thermoplastics through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source,
allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high
volume and precision requiring applications using automation, as in the automotive and
aeronautics industries. It is based on keyhole or penetration mode welding

Like electron-beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding has high power density (on the order of
1 MW/cm2) resulting in small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling rates. The spot
size of the laser can vary between 0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only smaller sizes are used for
welding. The depth of penetration is proportional to the amount of power supplied, but is also
dependent on the location of the focal point: penetration is maximized when the focal point is
slightly below the surface of the workpiece

A continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the application. Millisecond-
long pulses are used to weld thin materials such as razor blades while continuous laser systems
are employed for deep welds.

LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding carbon steels, HSLA steels, stainless
steel, aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern when welding
high-carbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that of electron beam welding. The speed
of welding is proportional to the amount of power supplied but also depends on the type and
thickness of the workpieces. The high power capability of gas lasers make them especially
suitable for high volume applications. LBW is particularly dominant in the automotive
industry.[1][2]

Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are:

the laser beam can be transmitted through air rather than requiring a vacuum

the process is easily automated with robotic machinery

x-rays are not generated

LBW results in higher quality welds[3][4]

A derivative of LBW, laser-hybrid welding, combines the laser of LBW with an arc welding
method such as gas metal arc welding. This combination allows for greater positioning
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flexibility, since GMAW supplies molten metal to fill the joint, and due to the use of a laser,
increases the welding speed over what is normally possible with GMAW. Weld quality tends to
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be higher as well, since the potential for undercutting is reduced.[5]

Types Of Laser Welding

There are 3 types of laser welding:

Conduction mode

Conduction/penetration mode

Penetration or keyhole mode

These types of laser welding are grouped by the amount of energy delivered to the metal. Think
of these as low, medium, and high energy levels of laser energy

Conduction Mode

Conduction mode delivers low laser energy to the metal, resulting in low penetration with a
shallow weld.
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It is good for joints that do not need high strength as the results are a kind of continuous spot
weld. Conduction welds are smooth and aesthetically pleasing, and they are typically wider than
they are deep.

There are two types of conduction mode LBW:

Direct Heating: The part’s surface is heated directly by a laser. Heat is then conducted into the
metal, and portions of the base metal melt, fusing the joint when the metal resolidifies.

Energy Transmission: A special absorbing ink is first placed at the joint’s interface. This ink
takes in the laser’s energy and generates heat. The underlying metal then conducts the heat into a
thin layer, which melts, and resolidifies to form a welded joint.

Conduction/Penetration Mode

Some may not acknowledge this as one of the modes. They feel there are only two types; you
either conduct heat into the metal or vaporize a small metal channel, allowing the laser down into
the metal.

But the conduction/penetration mode uses “medium” energy and results in more penetration. But
the laser is not strong enough to vaporize metal like in the keyhole mode.

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Penetration Or Keyhole Mode

This mode creates deep, narrow welds. So, some call it penetration mode. The welds made are
normally deeper than wide and stronger than conduction mode welds.

With this type of LBW welding, a high-powered laser vaporizes the base metal, creating a
narrow tunnel known as a “keyhole” that extends down into the joint. This “hole” provides a
conduit for the laser to penetrate deep into the metal.

Brazing and Soldering

Definition of Brazing, Soldering and Welding

According to the Metals Handbook 9th ed., welding is “a material joining process which
produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures, with or without the
application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without the use of
filler material” (Ref. (1)). From this definition for welding, it is understandable why many people
refer to brazing and soldering as welding. However, people intimately associated with the
brazing industry will argue that brazing and welding are not the same because when brazing, no
thermal melting of the base metals being joined occurs.

With both brazing and soldering, a filler metal is used that has a melting point lower than the
solidus point of the metal parts being joined (this is the primary difference between welding and
brazing). After reaching a certain temperature, generally, about 50° to 100°F higher than the
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melting temperature of the filler depending on the heating rate, the surface of the base metal
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reacts with the filler alloy to form a metallic bond. According to the American Welding Society
(AWS) the only thing that differentiates soldering from brazing is temperature. If the metal
bonding process uses a filler metal that melts below 450°C (842°F) the bonding process is
defined as soldering. However, if the filler metal melts above 450°C (842°F) then the bonding
process is defined as brazing (Ref. (2)). Other sources differentiate brazing from soldering in that
for brazing there is a metallurgic bond created by the diffusion of the parent and filler material
across the joint boundaries whereas this is not normally achieved in soldering.

Besides metallic bonding, sometimes referred to as a metallurgical bonding, occurring during the
brazing process, there are a number of other chemical processes that can occur and need to be
controlled; these are: dissolution, diffusion, oxidation, the formation of intermetallic
compounds (alloy), and if steels are being brazed, de-carburization.

By definition, a metallic bond is the principle bond that holds metals together and is formed
between the base metal and filler metal in all welding, brazing, and soldering processes. This
bond occurs as a consequence of the increased spatial extension of the valence electron wave
functions when an aggregate of metal atoms are brought close together. In other words, the bond
occurs because the valence electrons are shared by the metal atoms.

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In metals, diffusion is the net movement of atoms from a region of high concentration (or high
chemical potential) to a region of low concentration (or low chemical potential) resulting from
the random motion of the atoms. For diffusion to occur, there is an activation energy that is
necessary for atoms to jump from its lattice position to a vacancy, because the number of atoms
having the necessary energy to jump goes up exponentially with temperature, the rate of
diffusion goes up exponentially with temperature.

DA = Dºe -Q/RT where Da is the rate of diffusion for atom A in square centimeters per second.
Dº is a constant for a given diffusion couple. e = 2.71828 the natural log base. Q is the activation
energy in calories per mole. R = 1.987 cal/molºK. T is the temperature in degrees Kelvin.

While diffusion is a necessary part of brazing, typically controlling time at elevated temperatures
is used as a means of controlling diffusion and its resulting effect.

Definition of chemical processes that can occur during welding, brazing and soldering

Dissolution refers to the dissolving of a solid metal into a liquid metal that is in intimate contact
with it. The rate at which dissolution occurs is a function of time, temperature, and volume of
liquid metal (solvent); however, temperature is the most dominant controlling factor.
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Oxidation is the process of oxygen reacting with a metal to form a metal oxide, e.g. rust. All
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metals have a naturally occurring surface oxide layer that needs to be removed for a metallic
bond during brazing/soldering. Fluxes are the most common way of reducing oxide layers and
preventing oxidation of the joint area during brazing/soldering. Other methods include the use of
a controlled atmosphere to prevent the creation of oxides during the brazing or soldering process.

The intermetallic compound is an intermediate phase in an alloy system having a narrow range
of homogeneity and relatively simple stoichiometric proportions, in which the nature of the
atomic binding can vary from metallic to ionic. Intermetallic compound layers are formed during
metal-to-metal bonding as the liquid filler metal dissolves and pulls the base alloy into
solution. In general, the intermetallic compound layer tends to be the most brittle part of the
joint. Therefore, process variables need to be optimized and controlled to yield a strong, tough
joint. Decarburization is the loss of carbon from the surface of a ferrous alloy as a result of
heating in an atmosphere or medium that reacts with the carbon at the surface.

Soldering

There are many different families of alloys that are used as filler metals for soldering; however,
the one thing that all soldering filler metals have in common is an alloy melting point below
450°C (842°F). These soldering alloys include, but are not limited to lead alloys, tin alloys, and
zinc alloys. Lead and tin alloys are commonly used for soldering copper and brass joints. Also,
lead and tin alloys are used for soldering brass to various types of coated steels; i.e. terneplate,
tinplate, and copper/nickel clad or plated steels. Zinc alloys are used for aluminum to aluminum
soldering, aluminum to copper soldering, and repair of galvanized coatings.

Time, temperature, joint geometry, part alloy, type and amount of flux, type and amount of filler
alloy, are the process variables that need to be controlled when soldering. These process
variables control the final solder joint quality and strength. The following briefly describes how
each of these variables influences the final solder joint:

Type and amount of flux – the purpose of the flux is to clean the surfaces of both the base alloys
and filler metals and keep them from oxidizing during the soldering process. The type of flux
effects how it reacts with the metals being soldered and the temperature range during which the
flux is active. Because the flux is heated and used up during the soldering process, the amount of
94

flux used has an impact on whether the solder joint forms before oxidation occurs. The
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consumption of the flux also influences the final time-temperature profile the joint experiences
during soldering. In some instances, nitrogen, argon or other shielding gases are used to assist the
flux with preventing oxidation.

Joint geometry – this influences the strength of the final solder joint and if and how solder alloy
is pulled into the joint. Generally, a good solder joint geometry will pull filler metal into the joint
and hold it in place. There is an optimum the solder joint gap where the strength of the solder
joint is maximized. If the solder joint gap becomes too great, the strength of the joint is
dominated by the bulk properties of the solder. However, if the solder joint gap becomes too
tight, the strength of joint begins to diminish and solder flow can be pinched off during the
soldering process. The joint length needs to be designed to give the necessary tensile and shear
strength for the application. Ideally, a joint geometry that is self-fixturing is the most desirable,
because it does not require additional fixtures that can act as heat sinks or part restraints that can
lead to joint distortion and fracturing during heating and cooling.

Part alloy (substrate), filler alloy, and amount of filler alloy influence the chemical reactions that
occur during the soldering process, how much dissolution occurs and what intermetallic
compounds are formed.

For a given alloy system, time and temperature together control how much dissolution occurs
and how thick the intermetallic compound layer becomes.

Temperature is the main variable controlling the speed at which the chemical reactions required
to make a solder joint occur and what type of intermetallic compounds form.

Part geometry and the number of joints being soldered commonly determine the heating method
best suited for soldering.

Generally, the type of soldering being done refers to the type of heating methods used to heat the
filler metal and parts being joined by soldering; i.e. hot dip soldering, wave soldering, torch
soldering, furnace soldering, induction soldering, iron soldering, infrared soldering, and
resistance soldering. The more automated the soldering process normally the more consistent the
solder joint properties are. Generally, hand operations like torch soldering and iron soldering are
95

going to have the most joint variability because of their dependence on operator skill.
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Soldering has commonly been used for making leak-free plumbing joints, electrical connections
on circuit boards, joints on heat exchangers that are structural, thermally conductive, and leak-
free, e.g. copper-brass radiators. Click here to read more about soldering and application
practices.

Brazing

Brazing alloys are filler metals with an alloy melting point above 450°C (842°F). The most
common alloy families typically used for brazing are aluminum alloys, silver alloys, copper
alloys, gold alloys, and nickel alloys.

Generally aluminum braze alloys have the lowest melting ranges of the braze alloys having
melting points ranging from 1040⁰ F to 1135⁰ F. The American Welding Society (AWS) refers to
these alloys as BAlSi braze alloys that are composed of mainly aluminum and silicon.

Silver brazing is commonly called “hard soldering” or “silver soldering” which is erroneous
because silver brazing alloys melt in the range of 1145⁰ F to 1761⁰F (1761⁰F – melting point of
pure silver), which is above the 842°F melting point used to distinguish between soldering and
brazing. Silver braze alloys are commonly referred to as BAg alloys, e.g. BAg-5, by the
American Welding Society (AWS).

Some of the silver brazing alloys with the lowest melting ranges (BAg-1, BAg-1a, BAg-2, BAg-
2a, and BAg-3) contain cadmium, which is a toxic metal and carcinogen that gives off toxic
fumes when melted. When using silver braze alloys containing cadmium, appropriate venting of
the area where the brazing is being performed is required. Because of the health hazards
associated with cadmium, cadmium-free silver brazing alloys have been developed with similar
melting ranges to cadmium-bearing silver alloys.

Silver brazing is commonly used for brazing joints comprised of the following metals: copper-
copper, copper-steel, steel-steel, carbide-steel, and stainless steel-stainless steel.

Copper brazing alloys are commonly referred to as BCu, BCuP, or RBCuZn alloys by AWS,
depending of the chemical composition of the braze alloy; but in all cases the main component of
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the alloy is copper. BCuP braze alloys are primarily used for copper-copper joints and copper-
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brass joints, because the phosphorus in the alloy acts as a fluxing agent so no addition flux is
required. Copper braze alloys that contain phosphorus are not recommended for use with steel
because of the potential to form brittle intermetallic compounds at the joint interface. Non-
phosphorus copper brazing alloys are commonly used for brazing joints comprised of the
following metals: carbide-steel, steel-steel, and stainless steel-stainless steel. The two main
reasons that copper brazing alloys are used instead of silver brazing alloys are the cost of the
braze alloys and melting range of the braze alloy.

Nickel brazing alloys are commonly referred to as BNi alloys by AWS, since nickel is the main
component of these braze alloys. The melting range for nickel braze alloys range from 1610⁰F to
2111⁰F and these alloys are generally used by industries such as aerospace, automotive, and
energy where high temperature and oxidation resistance is required. However, in certain
applications nickel braze alloys, such as BNi-2, have been used for copper-copper and copper-
steel joints mainly because of their melting point.

Similar to soldering, flux is commonly used during brazing to clean and remove oxides from
both the surfaces being brazed and the braze alloy. Also, the flux is designed to protect the braze
joint from oxidation while the joint is being formed. However as brazing temperatures go up, the
number of chemical compounds that are capable of fluxing the braze joints diminish rapidly.
Therefore, usually higher temperature (above 1400⁰F) commercial brazing of structures with
multiple joints is performed using one of the following types of atmospheres: reducing, inert, or
vacuum (absence of atmosphere). When brazing in a furnace, induction heating can be employed
as a preheat to reduce part heating times

heat-affected zone (HAZ)

In fusion welding, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base material, either a metal or
a thermoplastic, which is not melted but has had its microstructure and properties altered by welding or heat
intensive cutting operations. The heat from the welding process and subsequent re-cooling causes this
change from the weld interface to the termination of the sensitizing temperature in the base metal. The
extent and magnitude of property change depends primarily on the base material, the weld filler metal, and
the amount and concentration of heat input by the welding process.

The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large role—if the diffusivity is high, the material
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cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Alternatively, a low diffusivity leads to slower
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cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat input during the welding process also plays an important
role as well, as processes like oxyfuel welding use high heat input and increase the size of the HAZ.
Processes like laser beam welding
ing and electron beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of
heat, resulting in a small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual
processes varying somewhat in heat input. To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures, the
following formula is used:

where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I = current (A), and S = welding speed (mm/min). The
efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with gas tungsten arc welding having a value of
0.6, shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding having a value of 0.8, and submerged arc
welding 1.0.[1]

The cross-section
section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld

Heat-affected
affected zone around a weld

Types of Welding Defects

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Slag Inclusions.
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Porosity.
 Undercut.
Weld Crack.
Incomplete Fusion.
Incomplete Penetration.
Spatter.

Causes & Remedies

Causes

Unclean welding surface.

Wrong electrode selection.
Lack or absence of shielding gas.
Mishandled or damaged shielding gas cylinder.
Either too low or too high welding current.
Fast travel speed

Remedies
Cleaning the weld surface.
Using the correct welding electrode.
Preheating the metals before welding.
Proper gas flow rate setting to achieve the right amount of shielding.
Regularly checking for moisture contamination in the shielding gas cylinder.
Adjustment of welding current and travel speed settings.

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Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of Welds

How NDT Ensures Quality

The criticality of welding in many types of industrial applications demands effective inspection
for quality assurance. The common practices for ensuring quality are destructive and non-
destructive testing (NDT) of welds. Typically, destructive testing is used for qualifying the
welders, and the welding procedures. With non-destructive testing, it can be easier to maintain
productivity and quality control through the early identification of potential flaws in the weld.

While each inspection procedure has its own checklist of benefits, the use of NDT has been
growing among industries
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Destructive and Non-Destructive Testing of Welds

In destructive testing, the weld is tested to the failure point through different tests, including
tensile, compression, fatigue, and other types of tests. The welding procedure and welders are
considered certified as long as the weld can exceed the specified requirement limit. This
certified weld procedure is used as a standard and recreated as close as possible for the
subsequent welds and inspected through visual inspection. The drawback of this method is that
the tested structure is damaged and the sample used for testing and standardization cannot be
representative of the different load conditions. For safety purposes, every component should be
tested in regular intervals for varying load conditions. This can be economically taxing for
industries.

With non-destructive testing, major and minor weld flaws can be easily identified in each
component being tested. Without any assumptions required from visual inspection, the
component can be used safely without any compromise to industrial operation or human lives

Non-Destructive Testing: The Ideal Inspection Practice

Ensuring quality in welds requires a testing method to detect major and minor flaws that pose a
threat to structural integrity. For efficient testing and accurate results, different types of NDT
methods can be utilized. This includes liquid penetrant, magnetic particle (MPT), radiography
(RT), eddy current (ECT), and ultrasonic testing (UT).

To ensure the welds are up to quality and safety standards, guidelines have been set forth by
different organizations including the American Society of Nondestructive Testing (ASNT), the
International Standard for Organizations (ISO), and the American Petroleum Institute (API). In
certain industries and countries, the understanding of these guidelines is vital for analysts to
ensure safety standards and maintain effective welding operations.

Leveraging NDT in Different Industries and Applications

Butt welds, in pipes or tubes, are prone to cracking and corrosion, which can severely damage
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the integrity of the system. NDT technologies such as EC, UT, and RT scanners and probes
provide stability in inspection and accuracy in flaw detection. The advanced inspection ability
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facilitates inspection along rough weld surfaces and along complex geometries to deliver
accurate inspection results, and thus, productivity and cost-efficiency.

In the aerospace industry, weld testing is required for identifying porosity, strength, lack of
fusion, or inclusions. The welding standard in the aerospace industry can be met with the help of
NDT methods that may include ECT, UT, MPT, or RT. Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT),
however, has been the trusted inspection method in the aerospace industry for its ability to
provide a volumetric inspection to identify all kinds of flaws along complex geometrical
structures.

Aluminum has been used widely in industries from aerospace to automotive for its excellent
structural properties. However, the welds in aluminum are not exempt from flaws and require
careful inspection for potential signs of cracking, porosity, and other types of flaws. ECT and UT
are the desired inspection methods that allow the detection of surface, near-surface and
volumetric flaws with absolute precision

Quality welds in pipelines provide assurance on safety improvement and risk minimization. For
in-depth flaw detection in the pipeline, UT inspection has been trusted. The UT solution can
provide faster and complete coverage, helping to minimize downtime and improve cost-
efficiency while reducing the chances for spills and risks to human lives.

Downtime and lack of resources can be among the challenges in the inspection of boiler tube
welds. Effective NDT technologies can support the mitigation of such challenges with their
ability to provide volumetric inspection of a wide range of tube diameters and offer a
precise characterization of the flaw. Fast and accurate inspection ensures efficiency and allows
industries the opportunity to optimize their welding system.

Hot working

In metallurgy, hot working refers to processes where metals are plastically deformed above
their recrystallization temperature. Being above the recrystallization temperature allows the
material to recrystallize during deformation. This is important because recrystallization keeps the
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materials from strain hardening, which ultimately keeps the yield strength and hardness low
and ductility high.[1] This contrasts with cold working.
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Many kinds of working, including rolling, forging, extrusion, and drawing, can be done with hot
metal

Temperature

The lower limit of the hot working temperature is determined by its recrystallization temperature.
As a guideline, the lower limit of the hot working temperature of a material is 60% its melting
temperature (on an absolute temperature scale). The upper limit for hot working is determined by
various factors, such as: excessive oxidation, grain growth, or an undesirable phase
transformation. In practice materials are usually heated to the upper limit first to keep forming
forces as low as possible and to maximize the amount of time available to hot work the
workpiece.[1]
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The most important aspect of any hot working process is controlling the temperature of the
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workpiece. 90% of the energy imparted into the workpiece is converted into heat. Therefore, if
the deformation process is quick enough the temperature of the workpiece should rise, however,
this does not usually happen in practice. Most of the heat is lost through the surface of the
workpiece into the cooler tooling. This causes temperature gradients in the workpiece, usually
due to non-uniform cross-sections where the thinner sections are cooler than the thicker sections.
Ultimately, this can lead to cracking in the cooler, less ductile surfaces. One way to minimize the
problem is to heat the tooling. The hotter the tooling the less heat lost to it, but as the tooling
temperature rises, the tool life decreases. Therefore the tooling temperature must be
compromised; commonly, hot working tooling is heated to 500–850 °F (325–450 °C).

Cold working

In metallurgy, cold forming or cold working is any metalworking process in which metal is shaped
below its recrystallization temperature, usually at the ambient temperature. Such processes are
contrasted with hot working techniques like hot rolling, forging, welding, etc.[1]: p.375 The same or
similar terms are used in glassmaking for the equivalents; for example cut glass is made by "cold
work", cutting or grinding a formed object.

Cold forming techniques are usually classified into four major groups: squeezing, bending, drawing, and
shearing. They generally have the advantage of being simpler to carry out than hot working techniques.

Unlike hot working, cold working causes the crystal grains and inclusions to distort following the flow
of the metal; which may cause work hardening and anisotropic material properties. Work hardening
makes the metal harder, stiffer, and stronger, but less plastic, and may cause cracks of the
[1]: p.378
piece.

The possible uses of cold forming are extremely varied, including large flat sheets, complex folded
shapes, metal tubes, screw heads and threads, riveted joints, and much more

Processes

The following is a list of cold forming processes:

Squeezing:
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Rolling
Swaging
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Extrusion
Forging
Sizing
Riveting
Staking
Coining
Peening
Burnishing
Heading
Hubbing
Thread rolling
Bending:
Angle bending
Roll bending
Draw and compression
Roll forming
Seaming
Flanging
Straightening
Shearing
Sheet metal shear-cutting
Slitting
Blanking
Piercing
Lancing
Perforating
Notching
Nibbling
Shaving
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Trimming
Cutoff
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 Dinking
Drawing
Wire drawing
Tube drawing
Metal spinning
Embossing
Stretch forming
Sheet metal drawing
Ironing
Superplastic forming
Strain Hardening / Cold Working / Work Hardening

Strain hardening can also be called cold-working or work-hardening

Tempering is the processing applied to the metal

Cold working is an important way to increase strength in metals

Strain hardening, also referred to as cold working or work hardening, is the process
where metals are made stronger and harder through permanent deformation. You cannot discuss
strain hardening without mentioning the word “temper”. Tempering is the type and amount of
processing done to the metal when it is at the mill, including thermal treatments and cold work

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RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLISATION AND GRAIN GROWTH

When metal is subjected to hot working and cold working processes, plastic deformation occurs
which is an important phenomenon. Plastic deformation of metal distorts the crystal lattice. It
breaks up the blocks of initial equiaxed grains to produce fibrous structure and increases the
energy level of metal. Deformed metal, during comparison with its un-deformed state, is in non-
equilibrium, thermodynamically unstable state. Therefore, spontaneous processes occur in strain-
hardened metal, even at room temperature that brings it into a more stable condition. When the
temperature of metal is increased, the metal attempts to approach equilibrium through three
processes:

recovery,
recrystallisation, and
grain growth.
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Fig. reflects the recovery, recrystallisation and grain growth and the main property changes in
each region.
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1. Recovery

When a strain-hardened metal is heated to a low temperature, the elastic distortions of the crystal
lattice are reduced due to the increase in amplitude of thermal oscillation of the atoms. This
heating will decrease the strength of the strain-hardened metal but there is an increase in the
elastic limit and ductility of metal, though they will not react the values possessed by the initial
material before strain-hardening. No changes in microstructure of metal are observed in this
period. The partial restoration of the original characteristics, produced by reducing the distortion
of the crystal lattice without remarkable changes in microstructure, is called recovery. At the
initial state, the rate of the recovery is fastest and it drops off at longer times at given
temperature. Hence the amount of recovery that occurs in a practical time increases with
increasing temperature. The individual characteristic recover at different rates and gain various
degrees of completion in a given cold worked metal.

2. Recrystallisation

Formation of new equiaxed grains in the heating process of metal, instead of the oriented fibrous
structure of the deformed metal, is called recrystallisation. The process of recrystallisation is
illustrated through Fig. The first effect of heating of metal is to form new minute grains and these
rapidly enlarge until further growth is restricted by grain meeting another. The original system of
grains go out of the picture and the new crystallized structure is formed in the metal.
Recrystallisation does not produce new structures however it produces new grains or crystals of
the same structure in the metal. It consists in having the atoms of the deformed metal overcome
the bonds of the distorted lattice, the formation of nuclei of equiaxed grains and subsequent
growth of these grains due to transfer of atoms from deformed to un-deformed crystallites. Finer
grains get refined and acquire a shape resembling fibres. The temperature at which crystallization
starts, that is new grains are formed, is called recrystallisation temperature. Recrystallisation
temperature is also defined as that temperature at which half of the cold worked material will
recrystallise in 60 minutes.

3. Grain Growth
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On recrystallisation of metal, the grains are smaller and somewhat regular in shape. The grains in
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metal will grow if the temperature is high enough or if the temperature is allowed to exceed the
minimum required for recrystallisation and this growth of grain is the result of a tendency to
return to more stable and larger state. It appears to depend primarily on the shape of the grain.
For any temperature above the recrystallization temperature, normally there is practical
maximum size at which the grains will reach equilibrium and cease to grow significantly.
However, there are certain kinds of abnormal grains growth in metal that occur as a result of
applied or residual gradients of strain due to non-uniform impurity distribution, and which
permits growing very large single grain in metal. Copied from Introduction to Basic
Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology by Rajender Singh.

Different Types of Sheet Metal Operations with diagram

Sheet metal embossing is a stamping technique that creates raised or sunken images in sheet
metal. This procedure can be accomplished using matched male and female roller dies, or by
sliding a sheet or a strip of metal between the desired pattern’s rolls. It’s frequently used in
conjunction with foil stamping to create a gleaming, three-dimensional impression. Depending
on the sort of embossing required, metal sheet embossing is generally achieved using a
combination of heat and pressure on the sheet metal. The metal thickness is modified in its
composition, in theory, using any of these processes.

In this article, you’ll learn the various types of sheet metal operations with their diagrams

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Types of sheet metal operations

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The common types of sheet metal operations are shearing, blanking, punching, piercing,
trimming, drawing, embossing, bending, and squeezing operations.

Shearing Operations

The Shearing operation is a cut in a straight line across a strip, sheet, or bar. It leaves a lean edge
on the piece of metal that is sheared or cut. In this operation, a sheet metal workpiece is placed or
kept between two dies from one end. And, the punch is hit at the other end of the sheet,
producing a shearing effect. This type of sheet metal operation has three basic stages:

Plastic deformation occurs when a metal is sandwiched between the upper and lower blades of
shear when pressure is applied. It penetrates the metal for around 5 to 40% of its thickness.

A fracture occurs at the spot where the most stress is concentrated.

Shear – The metal is sheared once small fractures are discovered.

Blanking Operations

It is the process of cutting a complete piece of sheet metal. In which there is ample junk all
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around, as shown in fig. For this type of sheet metal operation, a punch and die are used.
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Punching Operations
A punch and die technique is used to create circular holes in a sheet of metal. Although this is the
polar opposite of blanking, the process is essentially identical. Blanking processes, for example,
require the employment of a punch and die.

Piercing Operations

As indicated in the figure, piercing is the process of creating desired shape holes in a piece of
sheet metal without taking any material from the sheet or removing a very little quantity of
material. In this operation, both punch and die are used. Bullet-shaped punches are commonly
employed in piercing operations

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Trimming Operations
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The shaving operation is another name for trimming. It is a finishing technique that involves
removing burrs from cut edges in order to smooth them down and improve dimensional
accuracy.

Drawing Operations

It is the process of fabricating thin-walled hollows or vessel-shaped pieces out of sheet metal. It
can be classified into two groups:

Deep drawing – the object to be drawn has a depth that is greater than its breadth.

Shallow drawing – the item to be drawn has a length that is less than its width. Pans, tubes, and
cams are instances of drawing.
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Embossing Operations

It’s a metalworking technique for creating raised surfaces or letters in sheet metal. During this
operation, the thickness of the metal does not change

Bending Operations

When forces are applied to certain regions, this happens. With the inner surface under
compression and the outer surface in tension, the metal flow is uniform along the bend axis. The
following are the various types of sheet metal bending operations:

Edge bending

As indicated in the diagram, it is a type of bending operation in which a piece of sheet metal is
fixed or held between two dies from one end. The other end is thus compelled to strike the free
or unfixed punch. To complete the shaping process, the sheet metal piece’s free or unfixed edge
is bent.

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V-bending

When a piece of sheet metal is squeezed between the die and the punch in this type of bending
operation, it is shaped into a V-shape in the die

U-bending

The sheet metal component is shaped into a U-shape in this type of bending operation, in which
the punch is forced into the die by a force.
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Offset bending

It is a type of bending operation in which a piece of sheet metal is punched and die-formed into
an offset shape

Channel bending

When a force is applied to the punch to advance it into the die, the sheet metal piece in between
the punch and die takes on the shape of the die and punch, i.e. a channel shape.
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Squeezing Operations

It is a simple and common method of producing ductile metals. It can perform a variety of tasks,
including sizing, coining, and riveting.

Sizing – the sizing technique decreases the thickness of the metal by squeezing it. Only the
surface where the die and the workpiece come into contact is sized in an open die.

Coining – It’s the process of pressing metal into a die and allowing it to flow into the die space.
Medals, coins, and jewelry, for example.

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Basics of Rolling and Rolling Mills

Metal rolling is an important production process. It has industrial importance among various
production processes because of its several advantages such as cost effectiveness, enhanced
mechanical properties, flexible operations, higher productivity, and considerable material saving.
Rolling is the most widely used forming process, since it provides high production rates and
close control of the final product.

Rolling is the process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls. It is the process
of reducing the thickness or changing the cross section of a long work-piece by compressive
forces applied through a set of rolls rotating in the opposite direction. The rolling operation takes
a solid piece of metal and breaks it down successively in several steps into different shapes such
as flats, rounds, and sections etc. During rolling, metal is subjected to high compressive stresses
as a result of the friction between the roll and the metal surface.

Rolling has existed for hundreds of years. The first rolls were small, hand driven and they were
used to flatten gold and silver in the manufacture of jewelry and art. In 1480, Leonardo da Vinci
sketched a machine for the rolling of lead for stained glass windows. This was the world’s first
available record of a rolling mill, but no evidence exists which shows that the machine was built.
By the 1600s, rolling machines, rather than small, hand-driven rolls, were known to have been in
operation and iron was just being introduced as a metal capable of rolling. By the late 1700s, the
first hot rolling mills appeared, allowing iron to become a more popularly rolled material.

Modern rolling practice is attributed to Henry Cort, who got a patent for use of grooved rolls for
rolling iron bars. Henry Cort is also called ‘father of modern rolling’. The first rail mill was
established in 1820 while the first plate mill was exhibited in 1851. Three high mills for rolling
heavy sections were introduced in 1853. Hot strip mill were developed in America in the first
half of the twentieth century.

Basic concept of the rolling

Rolling is a process used to shape metal into a thin long layer by passing it through a gap of two
117

rollers rotating in different directions (clockwise and anti-clockwise). The gap between the two
rollers is supposed to be smaller than the thickness of the work piece of the material to be
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formed. When the metal piece is put between the rollers, it experiences forces of friction and
compression from the rollers compressing it to become thin and elongated, or longer than its
original length (Fig 1). When the piece completes its way through the gap between rollers, it has
lesser thickness than the original one with an increased length and width. This decrease in
thickness is referred to draft and the increase in length and width is called an absolute elongation
and spread respectively.

The initial materials for the primary rolling mills are ingots or continuous cast slabs, blooms or
billets. In addition to producing a useful shape for further processing, the hot rolling process
converts the cast grain structure into a wrought grain structure. The initial cast material possesses
a non-uniform grain structure, typically consisting of large columnar grains which grow in the
direction of solidification. These structures are normally brittle with weak grain boundaries. Cast
structure characteristically contains many defects such as porosity caused by gases, shrinkage
cavities, and solid inclusions of foreign materials which are trapped in the metal. Rolling a metal
above its recrystallization temperature breaks apart the old grain structure and forms a new one.
Grain boundaries are destroyed and new tougher ones are formed, along with a more uniform
grain structure. The rolling process also closes the vacancies and cavities within the metal. In
addition, hot rolling process breaks up the inclusions and distributes the material throughout the
work piece.

The process of rolling is a specialized form of metal forming for shaping large bulk material into
thin sheets, plates, or different types of cross-sections such as rounds, flats, squares, angles,
channels, T-bars, rails, and beams etc. of large lengths. The rolling operation is to ensure the
final shape geometry of the work piece being rolled, the uniformity of the material, and the
change in property due to the deformation process. Fig 1 shows the concept of rolling of metals.
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Fig 1 Concept of rolling of metals

Most metal rolling operations are similar in that the work piece is plastically deformed by
compressive forces between two constantly spinning rolls. These forces act to reduce the
thickness of the metal and affect its grain structure. The reduction in thickness can be measured
by the difference in thickness before and after the reduction, this value is called the draft. In
addition to reducing the thickness of the work, the rolls also act to feed the material as they spin
in opposite directions to each other. Friction is hence a necessary part of the rolling operation,
but too much friction can be detrimental for a variety of reasons. It is essential that in a metal
rolling process the level of friction between the rolls and work material is controlled, use of
lubricants can help with this.

During a metal rolling operation, the geometric shape of the work is changed but its volume
remains essentially the same. The roll zone is the area over which the rolls act on the material. It
is the place where the plastic deformation of the work occurs. An important factor in metal
rolling is that due to the conservation of the volume of the material with the reduction in
thickness, the metal exiting the roll zone is moving faster than the metal entering the roll zone.
The rolls themselves rotate at a constant speed, hence at some point in the roll zone the surface
velocity of the rolls and that of the material are exactly the same. This is point is known as the no
slip point. Before this point the rolls are moving faster than the material, after this point the
material is moving faster than the rolls.

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Fig 2 Metal rolling concepts

Sometimes in metal rolling practice, tension, (force), is applied to a work piece as it is being
rolled (Fig 2). This tension can be applied to the front, (front tension), the back, (back tension),
or both sides. This technique assists the forces necessary to form the work piece, and is normally
used on hard to roll materials.

At only one point along the surface of contact between the roll and the work piece, two forces act
on the work piece. These are (i) a radial force, and (ii) a tangential frictional force. Between the
entrance plane and the neutral point the work piece is moving slower than the roll surface, and
the tangential frictional force act in the direction to draw the metal into the roll (Fig 3). On the
exit side of the neutral point, the work piece moves faster than the roll surface. The direction of
the frictional force is then reversed and opposes the delivery of the work piece from the rolls.

Fig 3 Rolling process concepts

In metal rolling, the arc of contact between the rolls and the metal is a part of a circle. The
coefficient of friction is constant in theory, but in reality it varies along the arc of contact. The
metal is considered to deform plastically during rolling. The volume of metal is constant before
and after rolling. In practice the volume can decrease a little bit due to the closing up of the
pores. The velocity of the rolls is considered to be constant during the rolling process. The metal
only extends in the rolling direction and there is practically no extension in the width of the
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material. The cross sectional area normal to the rolling direction is not distorted.
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Variables influencing rolling

There are several variables which have influence on the process of rolling. These variables are (i)
diameters of the rolls, (ii) amount of reduction in a single pass, (iii) initial thickness of the work
piece, (iv) speed of rolling since it decides the strian rate, (v) front and back tension, (vi) nature
of friction between the rolls and the material rolled, (vii) physical properties of the material being
rolled, (viii) temperature field in the material and the rolls, (ix) shape of the roll contour or roll
pass in which the material is getting deformed, (x) behaviour of the rolling mill under load, (xi)
effect of previous treatment of the material resulting in work hardening or other effects, (xii)
elastic deformation of rolls under load, (xiii) state of the anisotropy of the material, and (xiv)
aspect ratio, or the ratio of the width of the stock to the initial thickness.

These 14 variables can singly or jointly, in combinations of two or more, create secondary
parameters anf phenomena more directly related to and normally associated with the rolling
process. These secondary parameters are given below.

Coefficient of draught, absolute draught and relative draught which are established by the initial
and final mean thickness of the rolling stock.

Slip which is characterized by the difference of the linear speed of the rolling stock and the
periphral speed of the roll.

Neutral angle which determines the point of no slip.

Spread which is the difference in the width of the exit material in comparison to the width of the
in going material.

Coefficient of elongation which is dependent on the relative value of draught and spread.

Bite which is a function of draught, and roll diameter.

Coefficient of friction and in going thickness which is important for the workpiece to enter the
throat of the roll. The component of the friction force is to be equal to or greater than the
horizontal component of the normal force.
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Rolling pressure which is a useful quantity for characterizing the mechanics of the rolling
process. It is the average normal stress, pressure, acting between the work piece and roll. The
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pressure is not constant since the stress acting to deform the work piece is the stress needed to
overcome material strength, frictional forces, and any constraints placed on the deformation by
process characteristics.

Specific roll pressure which is the rolling load divided by the contact area.

Rolling load which is the load with which the rolls press against the metal.

Torque which is the measure of the force applied to a member to produce rotational motion.

Power which is applied to the rolling mill by applying a torque to the rolls and by means of work
piece tension. The power is spent principally in four ways namely (i) energy needed to deform
the metal, (ii) energy needed to overcome the frictional force, (iii) power lost in the pinions and
power transmission system, and (iv) electrical losses in the various motors and generators.

Major components of a rolling mill

The major components of a rolling mill consist of (i) rolling stand or roll housing which needs a
very rigid construction, (ii) roller table conveying system for the movement of the work piece in
the rolling mill, (iii) descaling device which removes the scale on the work piece before rolling,
(iv) shears which are needed to cut the head end and tail end of the work piece, to cut the rolled
material in cooling bed lengths or saleable lengths, and to cut the work piece being rolled to
small lengths in case of cobble, (v) guides which are normally used in bar and section mills for
guiding the feed material to the roll groove, (vi) work rolls which carry out the function of
rolling and which are in contact with the work piece being rolled, (vii) back up rolls which are
used in flat hot and cold rolling mills and which are intended to provide rigid support needed by
the work rolls to prevent bending under the rolling loads, (viii) roll bearings and roll chocks
which support the rolls at their two ends, (ix) roll balance system which ensures that upper rolls
are maintained in proper position relative to the lower rolls, (x) roll changing device which is a
special device designed to attach to the neck of the roll for the removal or insertion of the rolls
into the rolling mill stands, (xi) mill protection devices which ensure that the forces applied to
the roll chocks are not of such a magnitude to fracture the roll necks or damage the housing, (xii)
screw down mechanism which controls the gap between the top and bottom rolls, (xiii) roll
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cooling and lubrication systems, (xiv) hydraulic systems, (xv) pinions which are gears to divide
power between the two spindles connected to the rolls, rotating them at the same speed but in the
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different direction, (xvi) gearing assembly which establishes the desired speed of rolling, (xvii)
drive motors which provide power to the rolls and roller conveyors and control the speed and
which are to be large enough to supply enough power, (xviii) electric control system which
control the quality of the power to the drive motors, (xix) automation system which is normally
used in large capacity mills for the elimination of the human errors, (xx) cooling of the rolled
products which is done by water cooling, air mist cooling or cooling by air on the cooling beds
or cooling conveyor (in case of wire rod mills), (xxi) coilers and uncoilers which are used for
coiling and uncoiling of rolled steel, and (xxii) packing and bundling devices for the rolled
products.

Roll configuration in rolling mills

Rolling mills are designed with different types of roll configurations. Rolls configuration can be
reversing (rolls can rotate in forward and backward direction) or non-reversing (rotation of rolls
is in a single direction). In the reversing types of rolls for reversing the direction of rolling, the
rolls are to be stopped, reversed and then brought up back to the rolling speed. Various types of
roll configurations used in the rolling mills are given in Fig 4 and described below.

Fig 4 Roll configurations in rolling mills

Two-high mill roll configuration – This is the most commonly used rolling mill configuration.
In this configuration, there are two horizontally mounted rolls. The rolling mill motor drives
either both rolls (top and bottom) or only one roll (normally the bottom roll) with the top roll
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rotating due to the friction between the roll and the work piece. As per the rolls rotation
direction, the mill can be either non-reversing (unidirectional) mill or reversing mill.
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Three-high mill roll configuration – In this type of roll configuration, there are three
horizontally mounted rolls. Rolls in the mills with this configuration rotate permanently only in
one direction. These mills make it possible rolling with increased number of grooves than in case
of two-high mill stands. The rolled stock is rolled in one direction between the bottom and
intermediate roll and then in the opposite direction between the intermediate and top roll. The
fix-fitted intermediate roll is directly driven. The bottom and top roll are driven via the gearbox
and they are normally adjustable. This roll configuration is used for the rolling of the shaped
rolled products in grooved rolls.

Four-high mill roll configuration – In this type of roll configuration, there are four horizontal
rolls, mounted in a single vertical plane. Two rolls (inner) are work rolls and two rolls (outer) are
back-up rolls. Significance of the back-up rolls consists in a chance of using higher roll forces
and decrease in bending (deflection) of work rolls. Small diameters of work rolls also permit
(except for greater elongation of the rolling stock) a possibility of achieving of more favourable
dimensional thickness deviations. The work rolls of the four-high mill are driven while the back-
up rolls are normally friction driven. The four-high roll configuration is used for rolling of plates
and for hot rolling and cold rolling of steel strip. It is used both in the non-reversing and
reversing rolling mills.

Six -high mill roll configuration – In this type of roll configuration, there are six horizontal
rolls, mounted in a single vertical plane. Two rolls (inner) are work rolls and four rolls are back-
up rolls. This configuration is normally used in cold rolling of steel strip.

Cluster mill roll configuration – In this type of roll configuration, there are six, seven, twelve,
or twenty horizontally mounted rolls. In all the mills having this configuration, there are only
two rolls which are work rolls while all the other rolls are back-up rolls. Normally work rolls are
driven and back-up rolls are friction driven. The multi-roll mill configuration is used for cold
rolling of very thin sheets, strips and foils.

Universal mill roll configuration – In this type of roll configuration, there are two horizontally
mounted rolls and two vertically mounted rolls which are driven through transmission of bevel
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gear wheels. The vertical rolls act by edging effect on lateral sides of the rolling stock, which
leads to creating its lateral ‘walls’, precision angles and sharp edges. The edging rolls are used to
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be mounted from the front of the mill stand, less frequently from the rear side, but sometimes
also from both sides of the mill. Universal mill configuration is used for rolling of slabs,
universal plates and universal steel sections such as beams etc. To enable rolling of wide-flange
beams, the vertical rolls are mounted in the same plane with axes of rolls placed horizontally.
Only the horizontal rolls are driven.

Planetary mill roll configuration – In this type of roll configuration, there are a pair of heavy
back-up rolls surrounded by a large number of planetary rolls. Each planetary roll gives an
almost constant reduction to the feed material as it sweeps out of a circular path between the
backup roll and the feed material. As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have contact with the
work piece, another pair of rolls makes contact and repeat the reduction. This configuration is
used for giving high reduction in a single pass.

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 UNIT-5
Metal Extrusion

Metal Extrusion is a metal-forming manufacturing process in which a cylindrical billet inside a

closed cavity is forced to flow through a die of the desired cross-section. These fixed cross-
sectional profile extruded parts are called “Extrudates” and are pushed out using either a
mechanical or hydraulic press. The process, patented by Joseph Bramah, was first used to
extrude lead pipes by Thomas Burr.

Figure 1. Aluminium-metal-extrusion

The most commonly extruded materials are Aluminium, Copper, Steel, Magnesium, and Lead.
Plastics and ceramics are also extruded extensively but not discussed in this article.

Characteristics of metal extrusion

Able to create complex cross-sections and will be uniform over the entire length of the
extrudates

Factors that affect the quality of extrusion are die design, extrusion ratio, billet temperature,
lubrication, and extrusion speed. Check out the detailed design guide for metal extrusion, “How
to design parts for direct metal extrusion”, to understand the 5 key design variables of metal
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extrusion and design for manufacture (DFM) extrusion design tips.

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Like any other metal-forming process, it can be either hot or cold. However, the process is
generally carried out at elevated temperatures to reduce the extrusion force and improve the
material’s ductility.

Low cost due to reduced raw material wastage and high production rate

Brittle material can be deformed without a tear as it only exerts compressive and shear forces in
the stock part

Parts that are formed have an excellent surface finish which minimizes post-processing
machining

Metal extrusion tends to produce a favourable elongated grain structure in the direction of the
material.

The minimum wall thickness of ~1mm (aluminium) to ~3mm (steel) could be achieved.

Direct Extrusion

Direct Extrusion, sometimes called Forward Extrusion, is the most common type of extrusion.
As shown in the figure below, the process begins by loading a heated billet (only for hot
extrusion, discussed later) into a press cavity container where a dummy block is placed behind it.
Then the mechanical or hydraulic ram presses on the material to push it out through the die.
Then, while still hot, the part is stretched to straighten. This process is beautifully animated by
Core Materials.

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Figure 2 – Direct extrusion (source: Kalpakjian & Schmid)

Under direct extrusion, the high friction caused by steels at higher temperatures is reduced using
molten glass as a lubricant while oils with graphite powder are used for lubrication for low
temperatures. The dummy block protects the tip of the pressing stem (punch or ram) in hot
extrusion. When the punch reaches the end of its stroke, a small portion of the billet called the
“butt end” cannot be pushed through the die opening.

Direct metal extrusion advantages

No billet modification required

It can be used for both hot and cold extrusion.
Simple tooling compared to other extrusion processes
Direct metal extrusion disadvantages
High force requirement due to friction
The butt end left inside the cavity
The force required to push the ram changes as the punch moves

Indirect Extrusion

In Indirect Extrusion, the die is located at the end of the hydraulic ram and moves towards the
billet inside the cavity to push the material through the die. This is illustrated in figure 2 below.

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Figure 3 – In-direct extrusion (source: Kalpakjian & Schmid)

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This process consumes less power due to the static billet container causing less friction on the
billet. However, supporting the extruded part is difficult when the extrudate exits the die.

In-direct metal extrusion advantages

Less friction and less power used

It can be used for both hot and cold extrusion
Simple tooling compared to other extrusion processes
In-direct metal extrusion disadvantages
Difficult to support the extruded part
The hollow ram limits the load applied
Hydrostatic extrusion

In hydrostatic extrusion, the chamber/ cavity is smaller than the billet and filled with hydraulic
fluid, which transfers the force from the ram to the billet, as shown in figure 3. Although tri-axial
forces are applied by the fluid, the pressure improves billet formability on the billet. Sealing the
fluid must be considered early to avoid any leaking and reduce pressure issues.

Figure 4 Hydrostatic extrusion process (Kalpakjian & Schmid)

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Although the hydraulic fluid eliminates the friction between the wall and the billet by isolating
them, due to the specialised equipment requirement, the high set-up time and low production rate
limit its usage in the industry compared to other extrusion processes.

Hydrostatic metal extrusion advantages

Low power/force requirement due to no friction

Fast production rates & high reduction ratios
Lower billet temperature
Even the flow of material due to the balanced force distribution
Large billets and large cross-sections can be extruded
No billet residue is left in the container
Hydrostatic metal extrusion disadvantages
Billets need to be prepared by tapering one end to match the die entry angle.
Only cold extrusion is possible
Difficult to contain the high-pressure fluid

Lateral Extrusion

In Lateral Extrusion, the container is in a vertical position, as shown in the image, and the die is
on the side. This process is suitable for low melting point material.

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Figure 5 – lateral extrusion process schematic (source : Kalpakjian & Schmid)

Impact Extrusion

Impact extrusion is part of the cold extrusion category, very similar to In-direct extrusion and
limited to softer metals such as Lead, Aluminium and copper. As the schematic illustrates, the
punch is pushed down at high speed and has extreme force on the slug to extrude backwards. The
thickness of the Extrude is a function of the clearance between the punch and the die cavity. The
Extrudates are slid off the punch using a stripper plate.

Figure 6 Impact extrusion process (source: Kalpakjian & Schmid)

For impact extrusions, a mechanical press is often used, and the part is formed at high speed and
over a relatively short stroke

Since the forces acting on the punch and die extremely high, tooling must have sufficient impact
resistance, fatigue resistance and strength for extruding metal by the impact. Impact extrusion
can be divided into the following three types by material flow.

Forward
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Reverse
Combination
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Figure 7 Types of Impact extrusion process (source : Kalpakjian & Schmid)

In forward impact extrusion, the metal flows in the same direction that the force is delivered,
while it flows in the opposite direction in reverse impact extrusion. As the image shows above,
the metal flows in both directions in combination.

Impact metal extrusion advantages

Raw material savings of up to 90%

Reduced machining times by up to 75%
Elimination of secondary machining operations
Reduction in multi-part assemblies
Improved mechanical properties for material strength and machining due to the cold
working of the material
Significantly reduced total part costs by up to 50%
Hollow thin-walled tubes, closed on one end, are often produced in the manufacturing
industry by backward impact extrusion.

Impact metal extrusion disadvantages

Produced as long as the part is symmetrical over the axis by which it is formed
Many of the parts formed by impacting in industry, will require further manufacturing
processes, such as metal forging, ironing or machining, before completion.
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Extrusion Defects
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Depending on the material condition and process variables, extrudates can develop many defects
that could affect the quality of the end product. These defects can be grouped under the
following three defects.

Surface cracking
Piping
Internal cracking

Forging

Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using

localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer (often a power hammer) or
a die. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold
forging (a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot forging (a type of hot working). For the
latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged parts can range in weight from less than
a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons.[1][2] Forging has been done by smiths for millennia; the
traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons, cymbals,
and jewellery. Since the Industrial Revolution, forged parts are widely used
in mechanisms and machines wherever a component requires high strength;
such forgings usually require further processing (such as machining) to achieve a finished part.
Today, forging is a major worldwide industry

Advantages and disadvantages

Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As the
metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain texture deforms to follow the
general shape of the part. As a result, the texture variation is continuous throughout the part,
giving rise to a piece with improved strength characteristics.[4] Additionally, forgings can achieve
a lower total cost than casting or fabrication. Considering all the costs that are incurred in a
product's life cycle from procurement to lead time to rework, and factoring in the costs of scrap,
and downtime and other quality considerations, the long-term benefits of forgings can outweigh
the short-term cost savings that castings or fabrications might offer.[5]
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Some metals may be forged cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged. Hot forging
prevents the work hardening that would result from cold forming, which would increase the
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difficulty of performing secondary machining operations on the piece. Also, while work
hardening may be desirable in some circumstances, other methods of hardening the piece, such
as heat treating, are generally more economical and more controllable. Alloys that are amenable
to precipitation hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, can be hot forged,
followed by hardening.[citation needed]

Production forging involves significant capital expenditure for machinery, tooling, facilities and
personnel. In the case of hot forging, a high-temperature furnace (sometimes referred to as the
forge) is required to heat ingots or billets. Owing to the size of the massive forging hammers and
presses and the parts they can produce, as well as the dangers inherent in working with hot metal,
a special building is frequently required to house the operation. In the case of drop forging
operations, provisions must be made to absorb the shock and vibration generated by the hammer.
Most forging operations use metal-forming dies, which must be precisely machined and carefully
heat-treated to correctly shape the workpiece, as well as to withstand the tremendous forces
involved.

Drop forging

Drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then "dropped" into the
workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die. There are two types of drop forging:
open-die drop forging and impression-die (or closed-die) drop forging. As the names imply, the
difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully enclosing the workpiece, while the
latter does.

Open-die drop forging

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Open-die drop forging (with two dies) of an ingot to be further processed into a wheel

A large 80 ton cylinder of hot steel in an open-die forging press, ready for the upsetting phase of
forging

Open-die forging is also known as smith forging.[9] In open-die forging, a hammer strikes and
deforms the workpiece, which is placed on a stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name
from the fact that the dies (the surfaces that are in contact with the workpiece) do not enclose the
workpiece, allowing it to flow except where contacted by the dies. The operator therefore needs
to orient and position the workpiece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually flat in shape,
but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized operations. For example, a die may
have a round, concave, or convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool.[10] Open-
die forgings can be worked into shapes which include discs, hubs, blocks, shafts (including step
shafts or with flanges), sleeves, cylinders, flats, hexes, rounds, plate, and some custom
shapes.[11] Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and
custom work. In some cases, open-die forging may be employed to rough-shape ingots to prepare
them for subsequent operations. Open-die forging may also orient the grain to increase strength
in the required direction.[10]
135

Advantages of open-die forging

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Reduced chance of voids

 Better fatigue resistance
Improved microstructure
microstructur
Continuous grain flow
Finer grain size
Greater strength[12]
Better response to thermal treatment[13]
Improvement
nt of internal quality
Greater reliability of mechanical properties, ductility and impact resistance

"Cogging"" is the successive deformation of a bar along its length using an open
open-die drop forge. It
is commonly used to work a piece of raw material to the proper thickness. Once the proper
thickness is achieved the proper width is achieved via "edging".[14] "Edging
Edging" is the process of
open-die.. The process is called "edging" because
concentrating material using a concave shaped open
it is usually carried out on the ends of the workpiece. "Fullering"
" " is a similar process that thins
out sections of the forging using a convex shaped die. These processes prepare the workpieces
for further forging processes.[15]

Edging

Fullering
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Impression-die forging
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Impression-die forging is also called "closed-die forging". In impression-die forging, the metal is
placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to an anvil. Usually, the hammer die is
shaped as well. The hammer is then dropped on the workpiece, causing the metal to flow and fill
the die cavities. The hammer is generally in contact with the workpiece on the scale of
milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part, the hammer may be dropped
multiple times in quick succession. Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming
what is referred to as "flash". The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool
metal is stronger than the metal in the die, so it helps prevent more flash from forming. This also
forces the metal to completely fill the die cavity. After forging, the flash is removed.[9][16]

In commercial impression-die forging, the workpiece is usually moved through a series of

cavities in a die to get from an ingot to the final form. The first impression is used to distribute
the metal into the rough shape in accordance to the needs of later cavities; this impression is
called an "edging", "fullering", or "bending" impression. The following cavities are called
"blocking" cavities, in which the piece is working into a shape that more closely resembles the
final product. These stages usually impart the workpiece with generous bends and large fillets.
The final shape is forged in a "final" or "finisher" impression cavity. If there is only a short run
of parts to be done, then it may be more economical for the die to lack a final impression cavity
and instead machine the final features.

Impression-die forging has been improved in recent years through increased automation which
includes induction heating, mechanical feeding, positioning and manipulation, and the direct heat
treatment of parts after forging.[17] One variation of impression-die forging is called "flashless
forging", or "true closed-die forging". In this type of forging, the die cavities are completely
closed, which keeps the workpiece from forming flash. The major advantage to this process is
that less metal is lost to flash. Flash can account for 20 to 45% of the starting material. The
disadvantages of this process include additional cost due to a more complex die design and the
need for better lubrication and workpiece placement.

There are other variations of part formation that integrate impression-die forging. One method
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incorporates casting a forging preform from liquid metal. The casting is removed after it has
solidified, but while still hot. It is then finished in a single cavity die. The flash is trimmed, then
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the part is quench hardened. Another variation follows the same process as outlined above,
except the preform is produced by the spraying deposition of metal droplets into shaped
collectors (similar to the Osprey process).

Closed-die forging has a high initial cost due to the creation of dies and required design work to
make working die cavities. However, it has low recurring costs for each part, thus forgings
become more economical with greater production volume. This is one of the major reasons
closed-die forgings are often used in the automotive and tool industries. Another reason forgings
are common in these industrial sectors is that forgings generally have about a 20 percent higher
strength-to-weight ratio compared to cast or machined parts of the same material.[4]

Design of impression-die forgings and tooling

Forging dies are usually made of high-alloy or tool steel. Dies must be impact- and wear-
resistant, maintain strength at high temperatures, have the ability to withstand cycles of rapid
heating and cooling. In order to produce a better, more economical die the following standards
are maintained:

The dies part along a single, flat plane whenever possible. If not, the parting plane
follows the contour of the part.
The parting surface is a plane through the center of the forging and not near an upper or
lower edge.
Adequate draft is provided; usually at least 3° for aluminium and 5° to 7° for steel.
Generous fillets and radii are used.
Ribs are low and wide.
The various sections are balanced to avoid extreme difference in metal flow.
Full advantage is taken of fiber flow lines.
Dimensional tolerances are not closer than necessary.

Barrelling occurs when, due to friction between the work piece and the die or punch, the work
piece bulges at its centre in such a way as to resemble a barrel. This leads to the central part of
the work piece to come in contact with the sides of the die sooner than if there were no friction
138

present, creating a much greater increase in the pressure required for the punch to finish the
forging.
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The dimensional tolerances of a steel part produced using the impression-die forging method are
outlined in the table below. The dimensions across the parting plane are affected by the closure
of the dies, and are therefore dependent on die wear and the thickness of the final flash.
Dimensions that are completely contained within a single die segment or half can be maintained
at a significantly greater level of accuracy.

Dimensional tolerances for impression-die forgings[16]

Mass [kg (lb)] Minus tolerance [mm (in)] Plus tolerance [mm (in)]
0.45 (1) 0.15 (0.006) 0.46 (0.018)
0.91 (2) 0.20 (0.008) 0.61 (0.024)
2.27 (5) 0.25 (0.010) 0.76 (0.030)
4.54 (10) 0.28 (0.011) 0.84 (0.033)
9.07 (20) 0.33 (0.013) 0.99 (0.039)
22.68 (50) 0.48 (0.019) 1.45 (0.057)
45.36 (100) 0.74 (0.029) 2.21 (0.087)
A lubricant is used when forging to reduce friction and wear. It is also used as a thermal barrier
to restrict heat transfer from the workpiece to the die. Finally, the lubricant acts as a parting
compound to prevent the part from sticking in the dies.[16]

Press forging

Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or force, which differs from the
near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The amount of time the dies are in contact
with the workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer
forges). The press forging operation can be done either cold or hot.[16]

The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to
deform the complete workpiece. Drop-hammer forging usually only deforms the surfaces of the
work piece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the interior of the workpiece will stay
relatively undeformed. Another advantage to the process includes the knowledge of the new
part's strain rate. By controlling the compression rate of the press forging operation, the internal
139

strain can be controlled.

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There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the workpiece being in
contact with the dies for such an extended period of time. The operation is a time-consuming
process due to the amount and length of steps. The workpiece will cool faster because the dies
are in contact with workpiece; the dies facilitate drastically more heat transfer than the
surrounding atmosphere. As the workpiece cools it becomes stronger and less ductile, which may
induce cracking if deformation continues. Therefore, heated dies are usually used to reduce heat
loss, promote surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer tolerances. The
workpiece may also need to be reheated.

When done in high productivity, press forging is more economical than hammer forging. The
operation also creates closer tolerances. In hammer forging a lot of the work is absorbed by the
machinery; when in press forging, the greater percentage of work is used in the work piece.
Another advantage is that the operation can be used to create any size part because there is no
limit to the size of the press forging machine. New press forging techniques have been able to
create a higher degree of mechanical and orientation integrity. By the constraint of oxidation to
the outer layers of the part, reduced levels of microcracking occur in the finished part.[16]

Press forging can be used to perform all types of forging, including open-die and impression-die
forging. Impression-die press forging usually requires less draft than drop forging and has better
dimensional accuracy. Also, press forgings can often be done in one closing of the dies, allowing
for easy automation.[18]

Upset forging

"Upsetting" redirects here. For other uses, see upset (disambiguation).

Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its length.[18] Based on
number of pieces produced, this is the most widely used forging process.[18] A few examples of
common parts produced using the upset forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts,
screws, and other fasteners.

Upset forging is usually done in special high-speed machines called crank presses. The machines
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are usually set up to work in the horizontal plane, to facilitate the quick exchange of workpieces
from one station to the next, but upsetting can also be done in a vertical crank press or a
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hydraulic press. The initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars
up to 25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons. The standard upsetting
machine employs split dies that contain multiple cavities. The dies open enough to allow the
workpiece to move from one cavity to the next; the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram,
then moves longitudinally against the bar, upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are
utilized on every cycle, then a finished part will be produced with every cycle, which makes this
process advantageous for mass production.[18]

These rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset forged:

The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without injurious buckling should
be limited to three times the diameter of the bar.

Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset successfully, provided that
the diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock.

In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the stock, and where
the diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock, the length of
unsupported metal beyond the face of the die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.

Automatic hot forging

The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars (typically 7 m (23 ft)
long) into one end of the machine at room temperature and hot forged products emerge from the
other end. This all occurs rapidly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute
(ppm) and larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can be solid or hollow, round or
symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13 lb), and up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in diameter. The main advantages to
this process are its high output rate and ability to accept low-cost materials. Little labor is
required to operate the machinery.

There is no flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30% over conventional
forging. The final product is a consistent 1,050 °C (1,920 °F) so air cooling will result in a part
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that is still easily machinable (the advantage being the lack of annealing required after forging).
Tolerances are usually ±0.3 mm (0.012 in), surfaces are clean, and draft angles are 0.5 to 1°.
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Tool life is nearly double that of conventional forging because contact times are on the order of
0.06-second. The downside is that this process is only feasible on smaller symmetric parts and
cost; the initial investment can be over $10 million, so large quantities are required to justify this
process.

The process starts by heating the bar to 1,200 to 1,300 °C (2,190 to 2,370 °F) in less than 60
seconds using high-power induction coils. It is then descaled with rollers, sheared into blanks,
and transferred through several successive forming stages, during which it is upset, preformed,
final forged, and pierced (if necessary). This process can also be coupled with high-speed cold-
forming operations. Generally, the cold forming operation will do the finishing stage so that the
advantages of cold-working can be obtained, while maintaining the high speed of automatic hot
forging.

Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit bearings, transmission gears, tapered
roller bearing races, stainless steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for liquid propane (LP) gas
cylinders.[22] Manual transmission gears are an example of automatic hot forging used in
conjunction with cold working.[23]

Roll forging

Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness and increased in
length. Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing
one or more shaped grooves. A heated bar is inserted into the rolls and when it hits a spot the
rolls rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled through the machine. The piece is
then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves.
This continues until the desired shape and size is achieved. The advantage of this process is there
is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece.[24]

Examples of products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs.

Net-shape and near-net-shape forging

See also: Near-net-shape

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This process is also known as precision forging. It was developed to minimize cost and waste
associated with post-forging operations. Therefore, the final product from a precision forging
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needs little or no final machining. Cost savings are gained from the use of less material, and thus
less scrap, the overall decrease in energy used, and the reduction or elimination of machining.
Precision forging also requires less of a draft, 1° to 0°. The downside of this process is its cost,
therefore it is only implemented if significant cost reduction can be achieved.[25]

Cold forging

Near net shape forging is most common when parts are forged without heating the slug, bar or
billet. Aluminum is a common material that can be cold forged depending on final shape.
Lubrication of the parts being formed is critical to increase the life of the mating dies.

Induction forging[

Main article: Induction forging

Unlike the above processes, induction forging is based on the type of heating style used. Many of
the above processes can be used in conjunction with this heating method.

Multidirectional forging

Multidirectional forging is forming of a work piece in a single step in several directions. The
multidirectional forming takes place through constructive measures of the tool. The vertical
movement of the press ram is redirected using wedges which distributes and redirects the force
of the forging press in horizontal directions.[26]

Isothermal forging

Isothermal forging is a process by which the materials and the die are heated to the same
temperature (iso- meaning "equal"). Adiabatic heating is used to assist in the deformation of the
material, meaning the strain rates are highly controlled. This technique is commonly used for
forging aluminium, which has a lower forging temperature than steels. Forging temperatures for
aluminum are around 430 °C (806 °F), while steels and super alloys can be 930 to 1,260 °C
(1,710 to 2,300 °F).
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Benefits:

Near net shapes which lead to lower machining requirements and therefore lower scrap
rates
Reproducibility of the part
Due to the lower heat loss smaller machines can be used to make the forging
Disadvantages:
Higher die material costs to handle temperatures and pressures
Uniform heating systems are required
Protective atmospheres or vacuum to reduce oxidation of the dies and material
Low production rates

HIGH ENERGY RATE FORMING PROCESSES

High Energy Rate Forming (HERF) involves a very hard order of the rate of energy flow for a
very short interval of time. HERF is based on the principle that the kinetic energy of a moving
body is proportional to the square of its velocity, and therefore, a significant amount of energy
can be supplied by a relatively smaller body moving at high speed.

The following are three common High-Energy Rate Forming processes:

Explosive Forming: In explosive forming, the metal sheet is clamped over an evacuated die and
the whole assembly is kept in a tank confined within a fluid medium (e.g. water). A shock wave
in the fluid medium is generated by detonating an explosive charge placed at a certain distance
from the workpiece in the confined space. Typical explosives include trinitrotoluene (TNT) and
dynamite for higher energy, and gun powder for lower energy. The pressure of the shock is
sufficiently high to form the metal into the die cavity. There is a greater hazard of die failure in
the confined operation due to the inevitable lack of control in explosives forming.

Electro-Hydraulic Forming: Electric discharge in the form of sparks, instead of explosives, can
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also be used to generate a shock wave in a fluid. An operation using this principle of generating a
shock wave is called electro-hydraulic forming. The process is also called underwater spark or
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electric-discharge forming. In this process, a capacitor bank is charged through the charging
circuit; subsequently, the switch is closed, resulting in a spark within the electrode gap to
discharge the capacitors.

Electro-Magnetic Forming: In electro-magnetic forming, electrical energy is first stored in a

capacitor bank. It is then discharged through a magnetic coil by closing the switch. The coil
produces a magnetic field whose intensity depends on the value of the current. Since the metallic
workpiece is in this dynamic magnetic field, a current is included in the job which sets up its
magnetic field through eddy currents. The forces produced by the two magnetic fields result in a
net repelling force between the coil and sheet, which forms the workpiece into the die. The
workpiece in the process has to be electrically conductive but need not be magnetic.

Advantages:

Production rates are higher for High-Energy Rate Forming process is high, as parts are
made at a rapid rate and thus these process are also called high velocity forming process.
Die costs are relatively lower compared to other processes.
The versatility of the process – it is possible to form most metals including difficult to
form metals.
No or minimum spring back effect on the material after the HERF process.
Production cost is low as power hammer (or press) is removed in the process.
Complex shapes / profiles can be made much easily, as compared to conventional
forming process.
The required final shape/ dimensions of the product are obtained in a single step, thus
eliminating intermediate forming steps and preforming dies.
Suitable for a range of production volume such as small numbers, batches or mass
production.

Limitations:

HERF process is not suitable for highly brittle materials.

Source of energy (chemical explosive or electrical) must be handled carefully.
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Highly skilled personnel are required for the HERF process from design to execution.
Dies need to be much bigger in size to withstand high energy rates and shocks and to
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prevent cracking.
Applications:

In ship building – to form large parts (up to 25 mm thick).

Bending thick tubes or pipes (up to 25 mm thick).
Radar dish
Elliptical domes used in space applications.
Crimping of metal strips.
The cladding of two large plates of dissimilar metals

Electrohydraulic forming

Electrohydraulic forming is a type of metal forming in which an electric arc discharge in liquid
is used to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy and change the shape of the workpiece.
A capacitor bank delivers a pulse of high current across two electrodes, which are positioned a
short distance apart while submerged in a fluid (water or oil). The electric arc discharge rapidly
vaporizes the surrounding fluid, creating a shock wave. The workpiece, which is kept in contact
with the fluid, is deformed into an evacuated die.

The potential forming capabilities of submerged arc discharge processes were recognized as
early as the mid-1940s (Yutkin L.A.). During the 1950s and early 1960s, the basic process was
developed into production systems. This work principally was by and for the aerospace
industries. By 1970, forming machines based on submerged arc discharge were available from
machine tool builders. A few of the larger aerospace fabricators built machines of their own
design to meet specific part fabrication requirements.

Electrohydraulic forming (EHF) is based on the ultra-high-speed deformation of metal using

shockwaves in water. Using the discharge of current from a capacitor bank, an electric arc is
generated in water between two electrodes. This electric arc vaporizes the surrounding water,
converting electrical energy into an intense shockwave of mechanical energy.

The shockwave simultaneously transforms the metal workpiece into a visco-plastic state and
accelerates it into a die, enabling forming of complex shapes at high speeds in cold conditions.
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All of which happens in a matter of milliseconds; total cycle time of seconds including charging
time of the system. This process is not limited by size and allows forming of parts up to a few
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square meters in size. An array of electrodes can be placed over a large workpiece, enabling
pressure distribution according to the product’s topology, still using a one-sided die to create
complex shapes and fine details.

Very large capacitor banks are needed to produce the same amount of energy as a modest mass
of high explosives - which is expensive for large parts. On the other hand, the electrohydraulic
method was seen as better suited to automation because of the fine control of multiple, sequential
energy discharges and the relative compactness of the electrode-media containment system.

Advantages of EHF

A single-step process (rather than progressive stamping)

Fine details and sharp lines can be easily formed
Forming of male and female shapes (negative and positive)
Only a single one-sided die is required
Enables extremely deep forming (much more than is possible with conventional
stamping)
Even distribution and higher strength of thin material
Extremely fast
Equipment has small footprint
No need for a press – the forming chamber is a self-balanced system
Allows forming of parts up to a few square meters in size

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