Research Methodology YEAR II-Sem-I Prepared by Mr. Fakhri .

M BSA-2107- 4CU

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Unit: 1 Introduction
What is Research?
Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem
using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Babbie, “research is a
systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It
involves inductive and deductive methods.”
Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed
event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive methods are
more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.
What is research Method?
Research methodology is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and
interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A
research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track
by limiting the scope of the research.
What are the key components of research methodology?
1. Research design
2. Sampling
3. Tools
4. Data collection procedures
5. Data analysis methods
6. Ethical considerations
The principles related to ethical considerations:
1. Participants should not be subjected to harm.
2. Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
3. Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
4. Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
5. Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
6. Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be
maintained.
7. The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
8. Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
9. Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
10. Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be
avoided.
What are the characteristics of research?
1. Empirical Research
Research proves scientific methods derived from real-life observations. It is also a way of
gaining knowledge using direct and indirect observation or experience. There are two ways to
examine Empirical Evidence – quantitative and qualitative. Many researchers can easily quantify
the given evidence or challenge the evidence and make sense of it in its qualitative form.

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2. Logical Research
This research methodology follows sequential procedures based on valid principles. Analytical
research implies that the study goes by logical reasoning rules and the logical process of
induction and deduction. Induction is the reasoning process from a part to the whole, whereas
deduction is reasoning from the premise.
3. Cyclic Research
As the name suggests, the cyclic research starts and ends with a question. It is a cyclical process
of steps that typically begins with identifying a research problem or study issue. It then involves
reviewing the literature, specifying a purpose for the study, collecting and analysing data, and
forming an interpretation of information.
4. Analytical Research
In this type of research, data is generated, recorded and analysed using proven techniques to
ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimizing potential errors. A variety of people,
including students, doctors and psychologists, use analytical research during studies to find the
most relevant information. A person finds out necessary details from analytical research to add
new ideas to the material being produced.
5. Controlled Research
Controlled research investigates with vigorous measures by keeping all research variables
constant, excluding the variables under investigation. IN simpler words, it compares results from
a treated group and a control group. The control group may receive no treatment, a placebo, or a
different treatment.
6. Research-based on Objective
The researcher uses sound judgment to ensure that the research findings are valid. Objective-
based types of Research can be classified as descriptive, co-relational, explanatory and
exploratory.
7. Research-based on statistical treatment
Researchers apply statistical methods to a data set to transform it from a group of meaningless
numbers into meaningful output. The mathematical treatment is involved in turning the available
data into something more meaningful from which information can be derived.
8. Hypothesis-based Research
This research is a statement about a scientific study’s expected outcome (a dissertation or thesis).
This statement needs to have three attributes – specificity, testability, and falsifiability for a
genuine research hypothesis. The hypothesis-based research design produces evidence that
satisfies the research objectives and can prove or refute the hypothesis.
Types of research methods
Qualitative methods
Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-
ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a
researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.
Types of qualitative methods include:

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1. One-to-one Interview
2. Focus Groups
3. Ethnographic studies
4. Text Analysis
5. Case Study
Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
Types of quantitative methods include:
1. Survey research
2. Descriptive research
3. Correlational research
Mixed-research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative
research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their
findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any
unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.
Laboratory research
Laboratory research occurs in a controlled laboratory rather than in the field. Often, the study
demands strict adherence to certain conditions, such as eliminating variables or timing
conditions. Laboratory research includes chemical experimentation and pharmacological
research.
Exploratory research
Exploratory research examines what is already known about a topic and what additional
information may be relevant. It rarely answers a specific question but instead presents the
foundational knowledge of a subject as a precursor to further research. Often, exploratory
research is applied to lesser-known issues and phenomena.
Applied Research
It is a scientific study that seek to solve various practical problems in the day to day life. It find
answers or solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, develop innovative technologies etc.
For example-
1. Improve agricultural crop production
2. Treat or cure specific disease
3. Improve energy efficiency of homes, offices, modes of transportation [1] [2]
Basic Research
It is called as Fundamental or Pure research. It expands the person's knowledge. This type of
research is not going to create or invent anything new. Instead, it is based on Basic science
investigation.
For example-
1. How did universe begin?
2. What are protons?

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Why Research Is Necessary and Valuable in Our Daily Lives

1. It's a tool for building knowledge and facilitating learning.
2. It's a means to understand issues and increase public awareness.
3. It helps us succeed in business.
4. It allows us to disprove lies and support truths.
5. It is a means to find, gauge, and seize opportunities.
6. It promotes a love of and confidence in reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing valuable
information.
7. It provides nourishment and exercise for the mind.
The elements of a good research design:
 Purpose statement
 Data collection methods
 Techniques of data analysis
 Types of research methodologies
 Challenges of the research
 Prerequisites required for study
 Duration of the research study
 Measurement of analysis
What is the need for Research Design?
 Reduces inaccuracy
 Increases efficiency and reliability
 Eliminates bias and errors
 Minimizes wastage of time
 Helpful in testing the hypothesis
 Provides a direction to the research
Types of Research Design?
A researcher must be well-versed in different types of research design. Moreover, a clear
understanding of different research designs helps choose the proper technique for the research.
Research design is broadly divided into quantitative and qualitative research design. We’ll walk
you through them in detail below.
Quantitative research design
Quantitative research design aims at finding answers to who, what, where, how, and when
through the course of research. Moreover, the outcome of the quantitative analysis is easy to
represent in the form of statistics, graphs, charts, and numbers.
Qualitative research design
Qualitative research design focuses on finding answers to how and why. It uses open-ended
questions and helps the subjects express their views clearly. Qualitative research is ideal for
businesses that aim to understand customers’ behavior and requirements. You can further break
the types of research designs into five categories.

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Experimental design
This type of research design looks at a problem scientifically by establishing a clear cause and
effect of every event. It also tries to understand the impact of the independent variable on the
dependable variable. Often social sciences use it to observe human behaviors and understand the
social psychology of human being better.
Correlational design
Correlation research design establishes a relationship between two related variables. The
researcher observes the variables over time and then draws conclusions based on them. This type
of research design requires two different groups. A correlation coefficient determines the
relationship between two variables. The value of the correlation coefficient ranges between -1
and +1. If the correlation coefficient is +1, it indicates a positive relationship between the two
variables, and -1 means a negative relationship.
Descriptive design
Descriptive design is a theory-based research method describing the research’s primary subject
matter. This type of research design uses data collection techniques like natural observation, case
studies, and surveys to derive results. This type of research design provides insight into the why
and how of research.
Diagnostic design
In diagnostic research, the design strives to explore the reason behind an issue and find solutions
to solve it. This type of research design tries to solve the problems in a structured form divided
into three phases- the issue’s inception, diagnosis of the issue, and solution for the issue.
Explanatory design
In this research design, the researcher explores concepts and ideas on a subject to explore more
theories. The main aim of the research is to explore the subjects’ undiscovered aspects and
answer questions like what, how, and why.
Unit: 2 Problem Statement and Identification
What is Problem statement?
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a
difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or
in practice that points to the need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation.
What is identification?
Problem identification and formulation are very crucial before conducting research, and this is
perhaps one of the most challenging aspects of any research undertaking. Since research is
problem-driven, the first thing to deal in research is undertaking a study to identify and
determine the problem. It lays the foundation for entire research work.

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Importance of identifying and formulating the research problem:

 Helps to understand in a better way:
A research problem is the primary step in conducting a food and nutrition research study. A
research problem helps you to understand the Research Methodology in a better manner. Most of
the beginners in the research think that a research problem is easy to formulate, but in reality, it
is not so easy. A research problem needs a great thought on the part of the researcher to develop
a scientific research problem. PhD Thesis Problem Statement provides a research problem that is
easily manageable and solved using scientific procedures.
 It helps to reach the objective of the study:
In actual the ultimate purpose of the PhD Problem Identification is to determine the objective
and intention of the research in the field of food and nutrition, in the absence of an aim or
objective, you cannot determine the research methodology. PhD dissertation problem statement
experts will be helpful for researchers to identify every step of the research process that is the
study design, sampling strategy, instrument for research and research analysis procedure.
 Helps to know about the time, energy and money needed to conduct research:
The research problem identification effectively helps to find out the time, energy and fund
needed to conduct research. It works by identifying and formulating a research problem for food
and nutrition study. This identification step helps to have a gap in research and have an adequate
formulation of prospects that leads to good manageable Research work. The PhD Thesis Problem
Statement Help provides clarity since the research process generates more questions. In the
absence of a clear and well-defined problem, the researcher can become confused. Besides, the
clarity it should have to be attractive so that the researcher become well engaged in your
research.
 Make your research novel:
The research problem identified should be original and unique. A useful review of Literature can
Help you determine whether the issue has already addressed in research with your particular
sample. Talking to experts PhD Dissertation Research problem Identification can illuminate a
problem. Replication of existing study warrants a discussion of value elsewhere, but the novelty
found in determining if an already solved problem holds in a new sample.
 Helps to find significant work:
Your research problem should have an incredibly positive impact on the field where the study
conducted. It can be practical, in the direct form of application in the results of research, where
the work advances the field by filling a knowledge gap. New researchers do not find this process
as an essential step and lose novelty in the work they carry out. PhD Dissertation Problem
Statement consultation offers help not only to find a research gap but also provides a significant
work that adds up the quality of the research undertaken in the field of food and nutrition.

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 It takes the research to fetch current needs:

Developing a Dissertation Research Problem is the critical step to carry out, but it adds high
value to the undertaking research. This process will be helpful to have a current trend knowledge
in the field of food and nutrition. Explore what topics covered in current journals in the area.
Look at calls from relevant disciplinary organizations. Identification reviews your research
Centre plan and focus on issues and create a best working approach to solve the problem in the
field of food and nutrition. Research problems solved through the scientific method, which
means research ability or feasibility of the problem is more important than all of the above
characteristics.
The research problem is the heart of a study. It drives the research questions and provides the
framework for understanding the research findings. PhD dissertation problem Identification
assists you with where to look for your research problem and how to evaluate when a research
problem for success.
Characteristics of a Research Problem
Knowing the characteristics of a research problem is instrumental in formulating a research
inqiry; take a look at the five key characteristics below:

Novel: An ideal research problem introduces a fresh perspective, offering something new to the
existing body of knowledge. It should contribute original insights and address unresolved matters
or essential knowledge.

Significant: A problem should hold significance in terms of its potential impact on theory,
practice, policy, or the understanding of a particular phenomenon. It should be relevant to the
field of study, addressing a gap in knowledge, a practical concern, or a theoretical dilemma that
holds significance.

Feasible: A practical research problem allows for the formulation of hypotheses and the design
of research methodologies. A feasible research problem is one that can realistically be
investigated given the available resources, time, and expertise. It should not be too broad or too
narrow to explore effectively, and should be measurable in terms of its variables and outcomes.
It should be amenable to investigation through empirical research methods, such as data
collection and analysis, to arrive at meaningful conclusions A practical research problem
considers budgetary and time constraints, as well as limitations of the problem. These limitations
may arise due to constraints in methodology, resources, or the complexity of the problem.

Clear and specific: A well-defined research problem is clear and specific, leaving no room for
ambiguity; it should be easily understandable and precisely articulated. Ensuring specificity in
the problem ensures that it is focused, addresses a distinct aspect of the broader topic and is not
vague.

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Rooted in evidence: A good research problem leans on trustworthy evidence and data, while
dismissing unverifiable information. It must also consider ethical guidelines, ensuring the well-
being and rights of any individuals or groups involved in the study.

Types of Research Problems

1. Theoretical research problems
Theoretical research problems deal with conceptual and intellectual inquiries that may not
involve empirical data collection but instead seek to advance our understanding of complex
concepts, theories, and phenomena within their respective disciplines. For example, in the social
sciences, research problems may be casuist (relating to the determination of right and wrong in
questions of conduct or conscience), difference (comparing or contrasting two or more
phenomena), descriptive (aims to describe a situation or state), or relational (investigating
characteristics that are related in some way).
2. Applied research problems
Applied or practical research problems focus on addressing real-world challenges and generating
practical solutions to improve various aspects of society, technology, health, and the
environment.
3. Action research problems
Action research problems aim to create positive change within specific contexts by involving
stakeholders, implementing interventions, and evaluating outcomes in a collaborative
manner. These different types of research problems may give you some ideas when you plan on
developing your own.
What is a problem statement?
A problem statement is a short, clear explanation of an issue or challenge that sums up what you
want to change. It helps you, team members, and other stakeholders to focus on the problem,
why it’s important, and who it impacts. A good problem statement should create awareness and
stimulate creative thinking. It should not identify a solution or create a bias toward a specific
strategy. Taking time to work on a problem statement is a great way to short-circuit the tendency
to rush to solutions. It helps to make sure you’re focusing on the right problem and have a well-
informed understanding of the root causes. The process can also help you take a more proactive
than reactive approach to problem-solving. This can help position you and your team to avoid
getting stuck in constant fire-fighting mode. That way, you can take advantage of more growth
opportunities.
When to use a problem statement
The best time to create a problem statement is before you start thinking of solutions. If you catch
yourself or your team rushing to the solution stage when you’re first discussing a problem, hit
the brakes. Go back and work on the statement of the problem to make sure everyone
understands and agrees on what the real problem is.
What are problem statements used for?
You can use problem statements for a variety of purposes. For an organization, it might be
solving customer and employee issues. For the government, it could be improving public health.
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For individuals, it can mean enhancing their own personal well-being. Generally, problem
statements can be used to:

 Identify opportunities for improvement

 Focus on the right problems or issues to launch more successful initiatives – a common
challenge in leadership
 Help you communicate a problem to others who need to be involved in finding a solution
 Serve as the basis for developing an action plan or goals that need to be accomplished to
help solve the problem
 Stimulate thinking outside the box and other types of creative brainstorming techniques

What are the 5 components of a problem statement?

In developing a problem statement, it helps to think like a journalist by focusing on the five Ws:
who, what, when, where, and why or how. Keep in mind that every statement may not explicitly
include each component. But asking these questions is a good way to make sure you’re covering
the key elements:

The five W's refer to the questions who, what, where, when and why. Good problem statements
usually address these questions and explain how they relate to the problem at hand. Here's a
breakdown of how you can incorporate these questions into your problem statements:

 Who: In your statement, outline the individuals who have a stake in the current issue and
reference the employees who are responsible for creating a solution. It's also helpful to
clearly define the audience for your statement.
 What: The "what" in the five W's refers to the current problem. In your statement, give a
clear description of the issue and its effects, and define the ultimate goal the company
aims to reach.
 Where: Explain where in the company the problem began and what operations and
departments it affects.
 When: As you write your statement, explain when the problem started and outline a
timeline for solutions.
 Why: Describe your reasons for writing the problem statement and explain why the
problem requires solutions.

How do you write a problem statement?

There are many frameworks designed to help people write a problem statement. One example is
outlined in the book, by Daniel. A faculty member at the Lean Enterprise Institute, the author
uses many case studies from his work as a business consultant.
To simplify the process, we’ve broken it down into three steps:

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1. Gather data and observe

Use data from research and reports, as well as facts from direct observation to answer the five
Ws: who, what, when, where, and why.
Whenever possible, get out in the field and talk directly with stakeholders impacted by the
problem. Get a firsthand look at the work environment and equipment. This may mean spending
time on the production floor asking employees questions about their work and challenges. Or
taking customer service calls to learn more about customer pain points and problems your
employees may be grappling with.
2. Frame the problem properly
A well-framed problem will help you avoid cognitive bias and open avenues for discussion. It
will also encourage the exploration of more options.
3. Keep asking why (and check in on the progress)
When it comes to problem-solving, stay curious. Lean on your growth mindset to keep asking
why and check in on the progress. Asking why until you’re satisfied that you’ve uncovered the
root cause of the problem will help you avoid ineffective band-aid solutions.
Write your research objectives in the SMART format
Another key step to writing strong research objectives is to use the SMART format. Using this
format can make your objectives clearer and easier to understand, which can make you more
likely to achieve them. Make sure your objectives meet these criteria:
 Specific: Be specific about your desired outcomes. Your objectives should be clearly written
and leave no room for confusion. This can help you keep them narrow and focused.
 Measurable: Making your objectives measurable is essential to achieving them. You can
create metrics to measure your progress toward achieving your objectives.
 Achievable: Be sure to create objectives that you can realistically achieve to help you avoid
getting overwhelmed by unrealistic expectations. Make sure you have the resources and
budget to accomplish your objectives.
 Relevant: Make your objectives relevant to your research and your overall goals. This can
help you stay motivated and on track throughout your research project.
 Time-based: You can establish deadlines to help you keep your research process on track.
You can set a major deadline for your entire project as well as smaller deadlines for each
objective.
How to write research objectives?
Research objectives can be written using the following steps:
1. Brainstorming your objectives
1. State your main research question clearly and concisely.
2. Describe the ultimate goal of your study, which is similar to the research question
but states the intended outcomes more definitively.
3. Divide this main goal into subcategories to develop your objectives.
4. Limit the number of objectives (1-2 general; 3-4 specific)
5. Assess each objective using the SMART

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2. Using the right language

1. Start each objective with an action verb like assess, compare, determine, evaluate,
etc., which makes the research appear more actionable.
2. Use specific language without making the sentence data heavy.
3. Writing the research objectives
1. The most common section to add the objectives is the introduction and after the
problem statement.
2. Add the objectives to the abstract (if there is one).
3. State the general objective first, followed by the specific objectives.
Formulating research objectives
Formulating research objectives has the following five steps, which could help researchers
develop a clear objective:
1. Identify the research problem.
2. Review past studies on subjects similar to your problem statement, that is, studies that use
similar methods, variables, etc.
3. Identify the research gaps the current study should cover based on your literature review.
These gaps could be theoretical, methodological, or conceptual.
4. Define the research question(s) based on the gaps identified.
5. Revise/relate the research problem based on the defined research question and the gaps
identified. This is to confirm that there is an actual need for a study on the subject based
on the gaps in literature.
6. Identify and write the general and specific objectives.
7. Incorporate the objectives into the study.
Advantages of research objectives
Adding clear research objectives has the following advantages:4,8

 Maintains the focus and direction of the research

 Optimizes allocation of resources with minimal wastage
 Saves time
 Acts as a foundation for defining appropriate research questions and hypotheses
 Provides measurable outcomes that can help evaluate the success of the research
 Determines the feasibility of the research by helping to assess the availability of required
resources
 Ensures relevance of the study to the subject and its contribution to existing literature
Disadvantages of research objectives
Research objectives also have few disadvantages, as listed below:8
 Absence of clearly defined objectives can lead to ambiguity in the research process
 Unintentional bias could affect the validity and accuracy of the research findings
Justification is when you justify or defend something as your reasoning while rationale is just
the reasons to account for something. Rationale is more about your reasoning and logic, while
justification has the nuance of implying that your reasoning needs to be defended

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Unit: 3 Variables
What is variable in research?
A variable is any kind of attribute or characteristic that you are trying to measure, manipulate
and control in statistics and research. All studies analyze a variable, which can describe a person,
place, thing or idea. A variable's value can change between groups or over time.
What is an independent variable?
An independent variable is the variable you manipulate or vary in an experimental study to
explore its effects. It’s called “independent” because it’s not influenced by any other variables in
the study.
Independent variables are also called:
 Explanatory variables (they explain an event or outcome)
 Predictor variables (they can be used to predict the value of a dependent variable)
 Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of a regression equation).
These terms are especially used in statistics, where you estimate the extent to which an
independent variable change can explain or predict changes in the dependent variable.
What is a dependent variable?
A dependent variable is the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable
manipulation. It’s the outcome you’re interested in measuring, and it “depends” on your
independent variable.
In statistics, dependent variables are also called:
 Response variables (they respond to a change in another variable)
 Outcome variables (they represent the outcome you want to measure)
 Left-hand-side variables (they appear on the left-hand side of a regression equation)
The dependent variable is what you record after you’ve manipulated the independent variable.
You use this measurement data to check whether and to what extent your independent variable
influences the dependent variable by conducting statistical analyses.
Types of variables
Types of independent variables
Experimental variables
In experiments, you manipulate independent variables directly to see how they affect your
dependent variable. The independent variable is usually applied at different levels to see how the
outcomes differ.
Subject variables
Subject variables are characteristics that vary across participants, and they can’t be manipulated
by researchers. For example, gender identity, ethnicity, race, income, and education are all
important subject variables that social researchers treat as independent variables. It’s not possible
to randomly assign these to participants, since these are characteristics of already existing
groups. Instead, you can create a research design where you compare the outcomes of groups of
participants with characteristics.

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Independent vs. dependent variables

In studies, researchers often try to find out whether an independent variable causes other
variables to change and in what way. When analyzing relationships between study objects,
researchers often try to determine what makes the dependent variable change and how.
Independent variables can influence dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot
influence independent variables.
Quantitative vs. qualitative variables
Researchers can further categorize quantitative variables into discrete or continuous types of
variables:
 Discrete: Any numerical variables you can realistically count, such as the coins in your
wallet or the money in your savings account.
 Continuous: Numerical variables that you could never finish counting, such as time.
Researchers can further categorize qualitative, or categorical, variables into three types:
 Binary: Variables with only two categories, such as male or female, red or blue.
 Nominal: Variables you can organize in more than two categories that do not follow a
particular order. Take, for example, housing types: Single-family home, condominium, tiny
home.
 Ordinal: Variables you can organize in more than two categories that follow a particular
order. Take, for example, level of satisfaction: Unsatisfied, neutral, satisfied.
Intervening vs. moderating variables
An intervening variable, also known as a mediator or mediating variable, explains the process
through which two variables are related, while a moderating, or moderator, variable affects the
strength and direction of that relationship.
Extraneous vs. confounding variables
A confounding variable is a type of extraneous variable that is associated with both the
independent and dependent variables.
 An extraneous variable is anything that could influence the dependent variable. These
unwanted variables can unintentionally change a study's results or how a researcher interprets
those results.
 A confounding variable influences the dependent variable, and also correlates with or
causally affects the independent variable. Confounding variables can invalidate your
experiment results by making them biased or suggesting a relationship between variables
exists when it does not.
Control or controlling and composite
Control, or controlling, variables have no effect on other variables and are often kept the same
throughout an experiment to prevent bias. Composite variables are often made up of two or more
variables that are highly related to one another conceptually or statistically.

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Levels of Measurement
Levels of measurement, also called scales of measurement, tell you how precisely variables are
recorded. In scientific research, a variable is anything that can take on different values across
your data set (e.g., height or test scores).

There are 4 levels of measurement:

 Nominal: the data can only be categorized
 Ordinal: the data can be categorized and ranked
 Interval: the data can be categorized, ranked, and evenly spaced
 Ratio: the data can be categorized, ranked, evenly spaced, and has a natural zero.
Depending on the level of measurement of the variable, what you can do to analyze your data
may be limited. There is a hierarchy in the complexity and precision of the level of measurement,
from low (nominal) to high (ratio).
Nominal
The nominal scale simply categorizes variables according to qualitative labels (or names). These
labels and groupings don’t have any order or hierarchy to them, nor do they convey any
numerical value.
Ordinal
The ordinal scale also categorizes variables into labeled groups, and these categories have an
order or hierarchy to them.
Interval
The interval scale is a numerical scale which labels and orders variables, with a known, evenly
spaced interval between each of the values.
Ratio
The ratio scale is exactly the same as the interval scale, with one key difference: The ratio scale
has what’s known as a “true zero.”
Determinant quality of measurement
Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something: Reliability refers
to the consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same
conditions). Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent
what they are supposed to measure).

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