plants

Review
Potential Effects of Metal Oxides on Agricultural Production of
Rice: A Mini Review
Miao Xu 1 , Qi Zhang 1 , Xiuyun Lin 2 , Yuqing Shang 1 , Xiyan Cui 1 , Liquan Guo 1 , Yuanrui Huang 1 , Ming Wu 1, *
and Kai Song 3, *

1 Key Laboratory of Straw Comprehensive Utilization and Black Soil Conservation, Ministry of Education,
College of Life Science, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
2 Rice Research Institute, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130118, China
3 School of Life Science, Changchun Normal University, Changchun 130032, China
* Correspondence: [email protected] (M.W.); [email protected] (K.S.)

Abstract: The extensive usage of metal oxide nanoparticles has aided in the spread and accumulation
of these nanoparticles in the environment, potentially endangering both human health and the
agroecological system. This research describes in detail the hazardous and advantageous impacts
of common metal oxide nanomaterials, such as iron oxide, copper oxide, and zinc oxide, on the life
cycle of rice. In-depth analyses are conducted on the transport patterns of nanoparticles in rice, the
plant’s reaction to stress, the reduction of heavy metal stress, and the improvement of rice quality
by metal oxide nanoparticles, all of which are of significant interest in this subject. It is emphasized
that from the perspective of advancing the field of nanoagriculture, the next stage of research should
focus more on the molecular mechanisms of the effects of metal oxide nanoparticles on rice and the
effects of combined use with other biological media. The limitations of the lack of existing studies on
the effects of metal oxide nanomaterials on the entire life cycle of rice have been clearly pointed out.

Keywords: metal oxide nanoparticles/rice; oxidative stress; heavy metal stress; quality improvement

Citation: Xu, M.; Zhang, Q.; Lin, X.;

1. Introduction
Shang, Y.; Cui, X.; Guo, L.; Huang, Y.; Metal oxide nanomaterials exhibit outstanding physicochemical properties such as
Wu, M.; Song, K. Potential Effects of a high specific surface area, electron mobility, thermal stability, mechanical strength, and
Metal Oxides on Agricultural surface defects due to their unique nano-size [1–3], allowing for their wide application in
Production of Rice: A Mini Review. adsorbent materials, nano-fertilizers, catalytic materials, nano-pesticides, and pollutant
Plants 2023, 12, 778. https://doi.org/ sensors [4–8]. With human activity, nanoparticles are constantly being released into the
10.3390/plants12040778 environment. Once ingested by living things, they might collect in certain tissues or organs
Academic Editor: Abdelali Hannoufa and eventually have major impacts [9], leading to new safety hazards in agricultural
production [10].
Received: 22 November 2022 Researchers are also very interested in the agroecological toxicological impacts of
Revised: 1 February 2023
metal oxide nanoparticles (MONPs). According to earlier research, the main manifestations
Accepted: 6 February 2023
of MONPs’ harmful effects on plants, which eventually prevent plant growth, are oxidative
Published: 9 February 2023
stress and oxidative damage. Additionally, the type of MONP and plant has a direct
bearing on this effect [11]. Furthermore, one of the most significant food crops in the world
is rice, a natural producer. In contrast to other crops, rice is grown in a way that promotes
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
the mobility and solubility of metal oxide nanoparticles and increases the impact of these
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. materials [12].
This article is an open access article This study examines how various significant MONPs affect rice’s growth and develop-
distributed under the terms and ment and discovers that MONPs have dual biological impacts on rice. However, MONPs
conditions of the Creative Commons can also lessen the toxic effects of heavy metals and other toxic substances on rice and
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// increase rice resistance [13–16], as well as act as nano-fertilizers to increase rice yield and
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ enrich rice seed nutrition [17]. On the one hand, MONPs can inhibit the germination and
4.0/). seedling growth of rice seeds to a certain extent, causing oxidative damage to rice [18–21].

Plants 2023, 12, 778. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12040778 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plants

 This study examines how various significant MONPs affect rice’s growth and devel-
opment and discovers that MONPs have dual biological impacts on rice. However,
Plants 2023, 12, 778 MONPs can also lessen the toxic effects of heavy metals and other toxic substances on rice 2 of 23
and increase rice resistance [13–16], as well as act as nano-fertilizers to increase rice yield
and enrich rice seed nutrition [17]. On the one hand, MONPs can inhibit the germination
and
On seedling
the othergrowth of rice seeds
hand, MONPs to a certain
can reduce extent,
the toxic causing
effects oxidative
of heavy damage
metals. to rice [18–
Additionally, this
21]. On the other hand, MONPs can reduce the toxic effects of heavy metals. Additionally,
study provides an overview of previous research, goes into great detail on research-related
this
issuesstudyandprovides an overview
hot subjects of previous
for the following research,
stage, goes into great
and anticipates detail on
difficulties andresearch-
potential
related issues and hot subjects for the following stage, and anticipates difficulties
field applications. It is anticipated that it will encourage the green, healthy, and sustainableand po-
tential field applications.
development It is anticipated that it will encourage the green, healthy, and
of nano-agriculture.
sustainable development of nano-agriculture.
2. Effect of MONPs on the Growth of Rice
2.2.1.
Effect
Ironof MONPs
Oxide on the Growth of Rice
Nanoparticles
2.1. Iron
IronOxide
oxideNanoparticles
nanoparticles (Fe2 O3 NPs) are widely utilized in a variety of industries,
Iron oxide
including nanoparticles
catalysis, (Fe2O3and
bioengineering, NPs) are widely
medicine, andutilized in a variety
they gradually enteroftheindustries,
agroecolog-
including catalysis,mostly
ical environment bioengineering, and medicine,
through wastewater and they
excretion andgradually
atmospheric enter the agroeco-
emissions [22,23].
logical
As a formenvironment mostlyitthrough
of nanoparticles, wastewater
is inevitable that theyexcretion
have some and atmospherictoward
phytotoxicity emissions
plants.
[22,23].
However, As athe
form
vastofmajority
nanoparticles, it is inevitable
of research that they have
has demonstrated that Fesome
2 O3phytotoxicity
NPs can helpto- rice
ward
seedsplants. However,
germinate, reducetheoxidative
vast majority of research
stress brought has
on bydemonstrated that Feand
abiotic stressors, 2O3 NPs
aid incanrice
help rice seeds
growth. germinate,
Additionally, theyreduce
can be oxidative
appliedstress brought on byto
as a nano-fertilizer abiotic
help stressors, and aid
rice seedlings grow
in rice growth.
better Additionally,
in unfavorable they can be applied
soil circumstances, as airon
including nano-fertilizer
deficiency to andhelp rice seedlings
drought.
grow Asbetter in as
early unfavorable soil circumstances,
2013, Alidoust et al. demonstrated including
that iron deficiency and
citric-acid-coated drought.
6 nm Fe2 O3 NPs
As as
can act early as 2013, Alidoust
an accelerator et al.the
to increase demonstrated
length of ricethat citric-acid-coated
roots and are less toxic 6 nm
thanFemicron
2O3 NPs iron
can act as an accelerator to increase the length of rice roots and are less toxic than micron
oxide under reducing conditions [22]. Since then, various iron oxide nanoparticles for rice
iron
seedoxide under reducing
germination have been conditions
increasingly[22]. Since then,Among
studied. variousthem,
iron oxide nanoparticles
iron oxide for
nanoparticles
rice seed germination
prepared from Cassiahave been increasingly
occidentalis studied.
L. flower extract Among
were shown them, iron oxidethe
to penetrate nanopar-
rice seed
ticles prepared
coat [24], from
inhibit Cassia occidentalis
dormancy which enhanced L. flower extract
starch were shown
metabolism, andtosignificantly
penetrate the rice
promote
seed coat [24],ofinhibit
germination dormancy
ecological which enhanced
stress-sensitive, starch metabolism,
early flowering pure mutant andrice
significantly
(Figure 1a).
promote
Fe2 O3 NPsgermination
also inhibitof the
ecological
synthesis stress-sensitive, early flowering
of growth hormones pure mutant
and abscisic riceroots
acid in the (Fig- of
ure 1a). Fe2O
transgenic 3 NPs
and also inhibit the
non-transgenic synthesis
rice [25]. of growth hormones and abscisic acid in the
roots of transgenic and non-transgenic rice [25].

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure1.1.(a)(a)
AA model
modelof iron-oxide-nanoparticle-induced germination
of iron-oxide-nanoparticle-induced in rice.
germination inReprinted with per-
rice. Reprinted with
mission from Ref. [24]. 2021, Springer-Verlag; (b) rice growth response. Reprinted with permission
permission from Ref. [24]. 2021, Springer-Verlag; (b) rice growth response. Reprinted with permission
from Ref. [26]. 2017, American Chemical Society.
from Ref. [26]. 2017, American Chemical Society.
In 2017, Sebastian et al. synthesized carbon-encapsulated Fe3O4 NPs with ferric chlo-
In 2017, Sebastian et al. synthesized carbon-encapsulated Fe3 O4 NPs with ferric
ride and caffeic acid to significantly improve calcium-induced Fe deficiency in rice [26]
chloride and caffeic acid to significantly improve calcium-induced Fe deficiency in rice [26]
(Figure 1b). This study provided a practical solution to improve Fe deficiency in crops
(Figure 1b). This study provided a practical solution to improve Fe deficiency in crops
caused by calcareous soils in agriculture. Moreover, Li et al. also found that low doses of
zero-valent iron (ZVI) and Fe3 O4 NPs could be used as an alternative to Fe fertilizers and
improve plant growth under Fe-deficient conditions by alleviating oxidative stress and
regulating phytohormones in rice plants caused by Fe deficiency [23]. In addition, Sainao
et al. used MNPs-Fe3 O4 (iron oxide nanoparticles containing both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions) to
mitigate the toxic effects of 3-nitrophenol on rice seedlings [27–29].
 caused by calcareous soils in agriculture. Moreover, Li et al. also found that low doses of
zero-valent iron (ZVI) and Fe3O4 NPs could be used as an alternative to Fe fertilizers and
improve plant growth under Fe-deficient conditions by alleviating oxidative stress and
Plants 2023, 12, 778 3 of 23
regulating phytohormones in rice plants caused by Fe deficiency [23]. In addition, Sainao
et al. used MNPs-Fe3O4 (iron oxide nanoparticles containing both Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions) to
mitigate the toxic effects of 3-nitrophenol on rice seedlings [27–29].
Thecollective
The collectiveimpact
impactof ofnanoparticles
nanoparticlesandandantibiotics
antibioticsononcrops
cropsin inaacomplex
complex ecologi-
ecological
environment is also a hot research topic. Bao et al. treated rice with
cal environment is also a hot research topic. Bao et al. treated rice with Fe2O3 NPs Fe 2 O 3 NPs and oxytetra-
and
cycline (OTC) separately, and their accumulation on the root surface,
oxytetracycline (OTC) separately, and their accumulation on the root surface, above- above-ground parts,
and inside the roots showed a decreasing pattern. Meanwhile,
ground parts, and inside the roots showed a decreasing pattern. Meanwhile, the combinedthe combined treatment
increasedincreased
treatment the distribution of both on
the distribution the root
of both surface
on the of the rice,
root surface of thewhere oxytetracycline
rice, where oxytet-
promoted the adsorption of Fe on the root surface
racycline promoted the adsorption of Fe on the root surface 2and and Fe O NPs promoted
3 Fe2O3 NPs promoted the content
the
of oxytetracycline
content of oxytetracyclinein the rice roots.
in the rice This phenomenon
roots. This phenomenon may bemay because OTC stabilizes
be because OTC stabi- Fe2+
in solution
lizes Fe2+ in from
solutionthe from
reductive dissolution
the reductive of Fe2 O3 of
dissolution NPs
Fe2through complexation
O3 NPs through with Fe2+ ,
complexation
and Fe
with Fe22+O, 3and
NPsFecan eliminate the effect of OTC. This study demonstrates the complexity of
2O3 NPs can eliminate the effect of OTC. This study demonstrates the

complexity of the effectsin

the effects of pollution ofagroecosystems on rice growth
pollution in agroecosystems on [30]
rice (Figure
growth 2a). [30] Other
(Figurestudies
2a).
reported that the uptake of
Other studies reported that the2 uptake Fe O 3 NPs and
of Fe2O3 NPs and oxytetracycline by ricebywas
oxytetracycline by rice was affected riceaf-
root
fected by rice root secretions of citric acid and glycine, which could effectively hinder the of
secretions of citric acid and glycine, which could effectively hinder the bioaccumulation
Fe2 O3 NPs and OTC
bioaccumulation of Fein rice [31] (Figure 2b).
2O3 NPs and OTC in rice [31] (Figure 2b).

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure2.2.(a)
(a)Rice
Riceroot
rootsurface
surfaceimages.
images.Reprinted
Reprinted with
withpermission from
permission Ref.
from [30].
Ref. 2019,
[30]. Springer-
2019, Springer-
Verlag; (b) diagram showing that citric acid and glycine reduce the uptake and accumulation of
Verlag; (b) diagram showing that citric acid and glycine reduce the uptake and accumulation of
Fe2O3 nanoparticles and oxytetracycline in rice seedlings upon individual and combined exposure.
Fe2 O3 nanoparticles
Reprinted
and oxytetracycline in rice seedlings upon individual and combined exposure.
with permission from Ref. [31]. 2019, Elsevier.
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [31]. 2019, Elsevier.
Interestingly, Fe2O3 NPs can also mitigate heavy metal contamination in rice. In 2019,
Interestingly, Fe2 O3 NPs can also mitigate heavy metal contamination in rice. In 2019,
Sebastian et al. demonstrated the excellent biocompatibility of magnetite nanoparticles
Sebastian et al. demonstrated the excellent biocompatibility of magnetite nanoparticles
prepared using rubber tree bark extract and a mixture of FeCl3 and FeCl2. Their findings
prepared using rubber tree bark extract and a mixture of FeCl and FeCl2 . Their findings
could effectively inhibit the uptake of environmental cadmium 3(Cd) and sodium by rice,
could effectively inhibit the uptake of environmental cadmium (Cd) and sodium by rice,
providing a new idea to alleviate food security problems caused by heavy metal pollution
providing a new idea to alleviate food security problems caused by heavy metal pollution
in agroecosystems [17]. In the same year, Rizwan et al. found that co-treatment of Fe2O3
in agroecosystems [17]. In the same year, Rizwan et al. found that co-treatment of Fe2 O3
NPs with biochar increased the iron concentration and reduced Cd enrichment in rice
NPs with biochar increased the iron concentration and reduced Cd enrichment in rice
seedlings [32]. In addition, nano-Fe3O4-modified biochar (BC-Fe) treatment also enhanced
seedlings [32]. In addition, nano-Fe O4 -modified biochar (BC-Fe) treatment also enhanced
Cd and Fe sequestration in rice roots3and inhibited Cd transport and accumulation in rice
Cd and Fe sequestration in rice roots and inhibited Cd transport and accumulation in
tissues [33] (Figure 3). Even in drought-like conditions, Ahmed et al. discovered that co-
rice tissues [33] (Figure 3). Even in drought-like conditions, Ahmed et al. discovered that
treating rice with hydrogel nanoparticles and iron oxide nanoparticles prepared from Ba-
co-treating rice with hydrogel nanoparticles and iron oxide nanoparticles prepared from
cillus strain RNT1 was able to reduce the reactive oxygen content and Cd adsorption by
Bacillus strain RNT1 was able to reduce the reactive oxygen content and Cd adsorption
rice [34]. Fe3O4@NH2 nanoparticles can be used to immobilize the heavy metal Pb in soil
by rice [34]. Fe3 O4 @NH2 nanoparticles can be used to immobilize the heavy metal Pb
in soil and inhibit Pb uptake by rice roots and shoots [35], and the nanoparticles can be
recycled. In 2018, Huang et al. found that Fe3 O4 NPs and zero-valent iron nanoparticles
were better at preventing arsenic migration to the above-ground parts of rice seedlings com-
pared to high-quality graphene oxide, multilayer graphene oxide, 20 nm hydroxyapatite
(HA20 ), and 40 nm hydroxyapatite (HA40 ) [36]. This study provided a reasonable basis
for arsenic pollution management. In 2020, Khan et al. found that Fe3 O4 NPs synthesized
 and inhibit Pb uptake by rice roots and shoots [35], and the nanoparticles can be recycled.
In 2018, Huang et al. found that Fe3O4 NPs and zero-valent iron nanoparticles were better
at preventing arsenic migration to the above-ground parts of rice seedlings compared to
Plants 2023, 12, 778 4 of 23
high-quality graphene oxide, multilayer graphene oxide, 20 nm hydroxyapatite (HA20),
and 40 nm hydroxyapatite (HA40) [36]. This study provided a reasonable basis for arsenic
pollution management. In 2020, Khan et al. found that Fe3O4 NPs synthesized by Bacillus
subtilis
by significantly
Bacillus inhibited arsenic
subtilis significantly levels
inhibited and promoted
arsenic levels and plant growthplant
promoted at low concentra-
growth at low
tions [37]. This mechanism
concentrations can be explained
[37]. This mechanism can be by the fact by
explained thatthe
Fefact
2O3 NPs
that alleviated
Fe2 O3 NPsoxidative
alleviated
stress in rice,
oxidative inhibited
stress in rice,the enrichment
inhibited of arsenic in of
the enrichment rice roots and
arsenic leaves,
in rice rootsand
and reduced
leaves,the
and
toxic effects of arsenic on rice. The nanoparticles also affected the transcription and ex-
reduced the toxic effects of arsenic on rice. The nanoparticles also affected the transcription
pression
and of genes
expression ofrelated to iron to
genes related uptake and transport
iron uptake in rice, in
and transport which
rice,improved iron accu-
which improved iron
mulation in rice roots and leaves under arsenic stress conditions. Eventually, the photo-
accumulation in rice roots and leaves under arsenic stress conditions. Eventually, the pho-
synthetic pigment
tosynthetic pigment content
content ofof
rice and
rice andthe growth
the growth ofof
rice were
rice were restored
restored[38].
[38].This
Thisresearch
research
has furthered
has furthered the the development
developmentof ofnanotechnology
nanotechnologyininthe theremediation
remediationofofagricultural
agriculturallandland
contaminated with
contaminated with heavy
heavy metals.
metals.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Nano-Fe
Nano-Fe33O O44-modified
-modifiedbiochar
biocharpromotes
promotesFeFefilm
filmformation
formationand
andcadmium
cadmium(Cd)
(Cd)fixation inin
fixation
rice roots. Different letters indicate a significant difference between treatments according to Dun-
rice roots. Different letters indicate a significant difference between treatments according to Duncan’s
can’s test (p < 0.5). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [33]. 2021, Elsevier.
test (p < 0.5). Reprinted with permission from Ref. [33]. 2021, Elsevier.

Although
Although thethecurrent
currentiron
ironoxide nanoparticle
oxide pollution
nanoparticle in rice
pollution in farming is not is
rice farming serious
not se-
[39–42],
rious there have
[39–42], thereonly
havebeen
only a few studies
been a fewcompared to other crops,
studies compared and crops,
to other more thorough
and more
investigations
thorough are required
investigations aretorequired
broadentothe research’s
broaden the focus and depth.
research’s focus and depth.

2.2. Copper
2.2. Copper Oxide
Oxide Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles
Due
Due to to their
their excellent
excellent thermal,
thermal, electrical
electricalconductivity,
conductivity,catalytic,
catalytic,andandantibacterial
antibacterial
properties, copper
properties, copper oxide
oxide nanoparticles
nanoparticles(CuO (CuONPs)NPs)arearewidely
widelyused
usedininelectronics,
electronics,chemicals,
chemi-
cals, machinery,
machinery, and agriculture.
and agriculture. TheseThese particles
particles also gradually
also gradually enter enter theand
the soil soilwater
and water
bodies
bodies of the agroecological environment with human activities [12]. The
of the agroecological environment with human activities [12]. The area of agricultural soils area of agricul-
turalare
that soils that are contaminated
contaminated with copper withiscopper is currently
currently growinggrowing eachand
each year, year,
theand the copper
soil’s soil’s
copper (Cu) concentration is also rising each year, which has varying degrees
(Cu) concentration is also rising each year, which has varying degrees of negative impacts of negative
impacts
on on crop development,
crop growth, growth, development,
and yieldand [43].yield [43].isCopper
Copper is a tracethat
a trace element element that isin
is involved
involved inmetabolic
numerous numerous metabolic
processes inprocesses in rice.excessive
rice. However, However, excessive
copper ions copper ions can beto
can be hazardous
hazardous to
organisms. organisms. Additionally,
Additionally, due to characteristics,
due to their special their special characteristics,
CuO NPs areCuO moreNPs areto
likely
more likely
interact withtoother
interact with other
chemicals [44].chemicals
Therefore, [44]. Therefore,
there has beenthere
a lothas been a lot
of interest in of interest
researching
in researching
the the possible
possible effects of CuO effects
NPs onofriceCuO NPs on
growth ricedevelopment.
and growth and development.
Cu’s
Cu’s harmful effects on rice are mostly seen as areduction
harmful effects on rice are mostly seen as a reductioninintillering,
tillering,a adelay
delayinin
fertility, and inhibition of root and shoot growth [45]. CuO NPs typically
fertility, and inhibition of root and shoot growth [45]. CuO NPs typically interact with interact with rice
rice
2+
in the form of both the actual nanoparticles and precipitated Cu , leading to a variety
of reactions, such as oxidative stress. Additionally, they benefit rice tissue culture, seed
mineral management, and arsenic stress reduction.
In 2014, Peng et al. found that CuO NPs could enter the epidermis, ectodermis, and
cortex of rice roots under hydroponic conditions, and finally reach the endodermis, but
it was difficult to pass through the Casparian strip [12]; however, the formation of lateral
 in the form of both the actual nanoparticles and precipitated Cu2+, leading to a variety of
reactions, such as oxidative stress. Additionally, they benefit rice tissue culture, seed min-
Plants 2023, 12, 778
eral management, and arsenic stress reduction. 5 of 23
In 2014, Peng et al. found that CuO NPs could enter the epidermis, ectodermis, and
cortex of rice roots under hydroponic conditions, and finally reach the endodermis, but it
was difficult to pass through the Casparian strip [12]; however, the formation of lateral
roots
roots provided
provided aa potential
potential pathway
pathwayfor forCuOCuONPs NPstoto enter
enter thethe stem.
stem. During
During the the transfer
transfer of
of
CuO NPs, dissolved Cu is bound to cysteine, citrate, salt, and phosphate ligands, in whichin
CuO NPs, dissolved Cu is bound to cysteine, citrate, salt, and phosphate ligands,
which some Cu(II)
some Cu(II) is converted
is converted to Cu(I).to Cu
Cu(I). Cu root
in rice in rice root
cells andcells
celland cellexists
voids voidsasexists as Cu-
Cu-citrate
citrate and CuO NPs, respectively [12] (Figure 4). CuO NPs
and CuO NPs, respectively [12] (Figure 4). CuO NPs in the environment cause oxidative in the environment cause
oxidative damage to rice seedlings, which has a negative impact
damage to rice seedlings, which has a negative impact on their growth and development. on their growth and
development.
Rice treated with CuO NPs had significantly lower seed germination and cell viability cell
Rice treated with CuO NPs had significantly lower seed germination and of
viability of seedling roots compared to the control group, as well
seedling roots compared to the control group, as well as a significant build-up of proline as a significant build-up
of
andproline
H2O2 and H2 OWang
[46,47]. 2 [46,47].
et al.Wang
claimetthat
al. claim that the of
the presence presence
CuO NPs of CuO NPs stimulates
stimulates the genera- the
generation
tion of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and copper uptake by rice roots, resulting in oxida-in
of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and copper uptake by rice roots, resulting
oxidative
tive stressstress in rice,
in rice, disruption
disruption of intracellular
of intracellular metabolism,
metabolism, DNA DNA damage,
damage, and and changes
changes in
in the expression of factors that control rice cell cycle processes, ultimately
the expression of factors that control rice cell cycle processes, ultimately inhibiting rice inhibiting rice
root
root growth
growth [13].
[13]. Another
Another study found that
study found that significant
significant Cu Cu build-up,
build-up,excessive
excessiveROS ROSand and
lipid peroxidation, modification of antioxidant enzyme activity
lipid peroxidation, modification of antioxidant enzyme activity in shoots and roots, and in shoots and roots, and
enhanced
enhanced lignification
lignification werewere allall associated
associated with with the the toxicity
toxicity ofof CuO
CuO NPs NPs exposure.
exposure. The The
proline and soluble sugar accumulation in the shoots and roots
proline and soluble sugar accumulation in the shoots and roots were greatly enhanced by were greatly enhanced by
CuO NPs treatment [48]. CuO NPs are primarily concentrated
CuO NPs treatment [48]. CuO NPs are primarily concentrated in rice chloroplasts when in rice chloroplasts when
compared
compared to bulk Cu;
to bulk Cu;nonetheless,
nonetheless,this thisdestroys
destroys thethe cystoid
cystoid membrane,
membrane, whichwhich in turn
in turn in-
inhibits rice development and photosynthesis [44,49]. Furthermore,
hibits rice development and photosynthesis [44,49]. Furthermore, the release of Cu ions the release of Cu ions
from
from bulk
bulk CuCu leads
leads toto oxidative
oxidative stress, which in
stress, which in turn
turn hinders
hindersrice’s
rice’sability
abilitytotogrow
growand and
develop
develop [50]. Additionally, Cao et al. tested several combinations of CuO NPs and Sb inin
[50]. Additionally, Cao et al. tested several combinations of CuO NPs and Sb
its
itstwo
two valence
valence states.
states. They
They discovered
discovered that that the
the number
numberand andcommunity
communitystructure
structureofofrice rice
rhizobacteria
rhizobacteriaon on soil
soil nutrient
nutrient cycling were negatively
cycling were negatively impacted
impactedby bythe
theco-exposure
co-exposureofofCuO CuO
NPs with Sb (III) [51]. These serve as a foundation for additional
NPs with Sb (III) [51]. These serve as a foundation for additional research on the methods research on the methods
by
by which
which nanoparticles
nanoparticles move move within plants, the
within plants, the effects
effects ofof ecotoxicology
ecotoxicologyon onbiochemical
biochemical
parameters, and potential impacts on the
parameters, and potential impacts on the food chain [44].food chain [44].

Figure 4. Nano-Fe3 O4 -modified biochar promotes Fe film formation and Cd fixation in rice roots.
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [12]. 2015, Elsevier.

Curiously, the researchers discovered that the interaction between humic acid and
CuO NPs enhanced the electrostatic barrier between CuO NPs and rice root cells, reducing
the contact between CuO NPs and rice and attenuating oxidative damage to the rice cells.
Humic acid can also directly scavenge the reactive oxygen species that CuO NPs create,
 Figure 4. Nano-Fe3O4-modified biochar promotes Fe film formation and Cd fixation in rice roots.
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [12]. 2015, Elsevier.

Curiously, the researchers discovered that the interaction between humic acid and
Plants 2023, 12, 778 6 of 23
CuO NPs enhanced the electrostatic barrier between CuO NPs and rice root cells, reducing
the contact between CuO NPs and rice and attenuating oxidative damage to the rice cells.
Humic acid can also directly scavenge the reactive oxygen species that CuO NPs create,
minimizing
minimizingtheir theirharmful
harmfuleffectseffectsononrice
rice[52]. Additionally,
[52]. Additionally, it has
it hasbeen
beendemonstrated
demonstrated thatthat
Fe2+2+reduced
Fe reducedCu Cubuild-up
build-up ininrice
riceshoots
shoots and
and roots
rootsandandhindered
hindered copper
copper adsorption
adsorption in rice
in rice
roots
roots[53].
[53].Under
Undercopper
copperoxide oxidenanoparticle
nanoparticle stress,
stress,silica and
silica and hydrogen
hydrogen sulfide
sulfide improved
improved
the ascorbate–glutathione system and NO concentration in rice (15-day rice seedlings),
the ascorbate–glutathione system and NO concentration in rice (15-day rice seedlings),
reducing
reducingthe theoxidative
oxidativestress
stresscaused
causedbybyricerice[54].
[54].
As the study progressed, the researchers found
As the study progressed, the researchers found that
thatthethesame
same beneficial
beneficial aspects
aspects of of
CuO
CuONPs NPsexisted
existedfor
forrice
ricegrowth.
growth.CuO CuO NPs
NPs synthesized
synthesized from
from Azadirachta
Azadirachta indica leafleaf
indica extract
extract
showed
showedlow lowtoxicity
toxicityand
andstable
stablebiocompatibility
biocompatibility inininducing
inducing healing
healing tissue
tissue formation
formation in in
rice
rice[55]
[55](Figure
(Figure5a).
5a).This
Thisresearch
research opened
opened upupnewnew paths
paths in in
thethefield of plant
field of planttissue culture.
tissue culture.
In
In2022,
2022,Deng
Dengetetal.al.examined
examinedcopper copperuptake,
uptake, seed
seed yield
yieldandand nutritional
nutritional value,
value,andandthethe
expression of auxin-associated genes in weedy and cultivated rice. They found that CuO
expression of auxin-associated genes in weedy and cultivated rice. They found that CuO
NPs not only promoted the expression of auxin-associated genes in these two rice species
NPs not only promoted the expression of auxin-associated genes in these two rice species
but
butalsoalsofacilitated
facilitated the
the enhancement
enhancement of iron content
of iron content in in cultivated
cultivatedrice riceseeds
seeds[56][56](Figure
(Figure5b).
5b).
ThisThis study
study provided
provided valuable
valuable information
information forforthe
thedelivery
deliverysystem
systemof ofnano-fertilizers
nano-fertilizers or
or crop
crop protectionmaterials.
protection materials.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5.5.(a)
(a)Effect
Effectof
ofcopper
copperoxide
oxidenanoparticles
nanoparticles(5(5mg/L,
mg/L,1010mg/L,
mg/L,and 1515
and mg/L)
mg/L)on on
ricerice
healing
healing
tissue production. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [55]. 2016, Frontiers; (b) copper oxide nano-
tissue production. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [55]. 2016, Frontiers; (b) copper oxide
particles affect yield, nutritional quality, and growth-hormone-related gene expression in weedy
nanoparticles
and cultivated affect yield,sativa
rice (Oryza nutritional quality,
L.) seeds. and growth-hormone-related
Reprinted gene
with permission from Ref. expression
[56]. in weedy
2022, Elsevier.
and cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) seeds. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [56]. 2022, Elsevier.
Additionally, CuO NPs, like iron oxide nanoparticles, inhibit arsenic uptake while
Additionally, CuO NPs, like iron oxide nanoparticles, inhibit arsenic uptake while
attenuating the detrimental effects of arsenic stress on rice shoot length and root branch-
attenuating the detrimental effects of arsenic stress on rice shoot length and root branching
ing number [18]. Stress treatment with arsenic and CuO NPs alone significantly reduced
number [18]. Stress treatment with arsenic and CuO NPs alone significantly reduced the
the rice germination rate, especially inhibiting the growth of the above- and below-ground
rice germination rate, especially inhibiting the growth of the above- and below-ground
parts of seedlings. However, when the two nanoparticles were applied to the rice, CuO
NPs shortened the rice tassel stage, accelerated rice maturation, and reduced the arsenic
content in rice seeds [57,58] (Figure 6). Consistent with this study, Wang et al. found that
CuO bulk particles, CuO NPs, and Cu2+ could reduce the amount of arsenic (III) in the
seeds in total arsenic throughout the life cycle of rice [59].
 parts of seedlings. However, when the two nanoparticles were applied to the rice, CuO
NPs shortened the rice tassel stage, accelerated rice maturation, and reduced the arsenic
Plants 2023, 12, 778 content in rice seeds [57,58] (Figure 6). Consistent with this study, Wang et al. found that
7 of 23
CuO bulk particles, CuO NPs, and Cu2+ could reduce the amount of arsenic (III) in the
seeds in total arsenic throughout the life cycle of rice [59].

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure6.6.(a)(a)
Heading
Headingprocess of rice
process of panicles after 131
rice panicles days
after 131ofdays
exposure to arsenic
of exposure toinarsenic
soil andincopper
soil and
oxide nanoparticles in the nutrient solution. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [57]. 2018, Amer-
copper oxide nanoparticles in the nutrient solution. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [57]. 2018,
ican Chemical Society; (b) copper and arsenic concentrations in the mature rice plants from a green-
American
house study Chemical Society; japonica
of rice (O.sativa (b) copper and arsenicwith
‘Koshihikari’) concentrations in the mature
131-day exposure rice in
to arsenic plants
soil from
and a
copper oxide nanoparticles in the nutrient solution. Means of treatments at the same As level withand
greenhouse study of rice (O. sativa japonica ‘Koshihikari’) with 131-day exposure to arsenic in soil
acopper
common superscript
oxide letter in
nanoparticles (A–C) are similar
the nutrient (p < 0.05).
solution. Means
Means of treatments
of treatments at the
at the same
same As CuO
level NPs
with a
level with a common superscript (a and b) letter are similar (p < 0.05). Reprinted
common superscript letter (A–C) are similar (p < 0.05). Means of treatments at the same CuO NPs with permission
from
levelRef.
with[58]. 2019, American
a common Chemical
superscript (a andSociety.
b) letter are similar (p < 0.05). Reprinted with permission
from Ref. [58]. 2019, American Chemical Society.
At the physiological level of the plant, CuO NPs are known to have two effects on
the growth
At theof rice seedlings.
physiological The
level ofdominant
the plant, negative
CuO NPseffects of CuO
are known to NPs
haveare
twomainly
effectsaonre-the
duction
growth in of the
ricegermination
seedlings. The rate of rice, decreased
dominant photosynthetic
negative effects of CuO NPs efficiency, induced
are mainly oxi-
a reduction
dative stress in rice,rate
in the germination andofin more
rice, severe cases,
decreased the deathefficiency,
photosynthetic of rice seedlings.
induced On the other
oxidative stress
hand,
in rice,CuO
andNPs also severe
in more play a cases,
vital role in riceof
the death tissue culture, the
rice seedlings. Onregulation
the other of minerals
hand, CuO inNPs
seeds, andathe
also play improvement
vital of landculture,
role in rice tissue pollutionthecaused by arsenic.
regulation The following
of minerals in seeds, andworkthe
should explainofthe
improvement adsorption
land pollutioncapacity
caused by of arsenic.
CuO NPs at following
The various timesworkand lookexplain
should into thethe
transport
adsorption mechanism
capacity of of CuO
CuO NPs NPs atin various
rice in more
timesdetail. In order
and look into to
theachieve themechanism
transport best bac-
terial
of CuOsuppression
NPs in rice while
in minimizing
more detail.toxicity,
In order thetoideal dose the
achieve of this
bestnanomaterial in plant
bacterial suppression
tissue
while culture was investigated.
minimizing Research
toxicity, the ideal dose isof being carried out on
this nanomaterial in the
plant molecular mecha-
tissue culture was
nisms of CuO NPs
investigated. in riceisseed
Research beingmineral
carriedcontrol
out onand thearsenic stress
molecular reduction. of CuO NPs in
mechanisms
rice seed mineral control and arsenic stress reduction.
2.3. Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
2.3. Zinc
Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) are one of the widely utilized MONPs, showing
oxide nanoparticles
promising applications
Zinc oxide in medicine,
nanoparticles (ZnO textiles,
NPs) aresensors, optical
one of the materials,
widely utilizedcatalysts,
MONPs, optical
showing
materials,
promisingand ceramics [60].
applications As human
in medicine, activities
textiles, continue
sensors, to expand,
optical thiscatalysts,
materials, nanomaterial
optical
materials, and ceramics [60]. As human activities continue to expand, this nanomaterial
continues to flow into nature. Investigating the effects of ZnO NPs on the growth of rice, a
globally important crop, is of interest to the community.
Previous studies have shown that ZnO NPs can be absorbed by the roots of rice
seedlings, causing stomatal closure and damage to the ultrastructure, accelerating the
synthesis of the phytohormone ethylene, causing oxidative stress in rice seedlings, and
Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 22

continues to flow into nature. Investigating the effects of ZnO NPs on the growth of rice,
a globally important crop, is of interest to the community.
Plants 2023, 12, 778 8 of 23
Previous studies have shown that ZnO NPs can be absorbed by the roots of rice seed-
lings, causing stomatal closure and damage to the ultrastructure, accelerating the synthe-
sis of the phytohormone ethylene, causing oxidative stress in rice seedlings, and signifi-
significantly
cantly inhibitinginhibiting the growth
the growth of riceof rice seedling
seedling roots [14,61,62].
roots [14,61,62]. However, However, rice FT-
rice FT-INTER-
INTERACTING PROTEIN 7 enhances rice tolerance to ZnO NPs by
ACTING PROTEIN 7 enhances rice tolerance to ZnO NPs by inhibiting auxin synthesis inhibiting auxin syn-
thesis [60], while the exogenous application of melatonin alleviates the
[60], while the exogenous application of melatonin alleviates the oxidative damage in-oxidative damage
induced
duced byby ZnOZnO NPsNPsand and abates
abates thethe inhibitory
inhibitory effect
effect on rice
on rice growth
growth [63].[63]. In addition,
In addition, ZnO
ZnO NPs synthesized using Senna occidentalis L. leaf extract acted on rice
NPs synthesized using Senna occidentalis L. leaf extract acted on rice by root exposure by root exposureand
and foliar spraying [64], reducing photosynthetic efficiency and affecting dormancy
foliar spraying[64], reducing photosynthetic efficiency and affecting dormancy time, flow- time,
flowering,
ering, and andfruitfruit setrice
set in in (Figure
rice (Figure 7). However,
7). However, seedseed priming
priming withwith polyethylene
polyethylene glycol
glycol will
will slightly mitigate this toxic effect [65].
slightly mitigate this toxic effect [65].

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Schematic
Schematic representation
representation of
of the
the dose-dependent
dose-dependent effects
effects of
of ZnO
ZnO and
and FeO
FeO NPs
NPs on
on morpho-
morpho-
logical, physiological, and biochemical changes in rice crops, (a) foliar exposure of NPs via. lipo-
logical, physiological, and biochemical changes in rice crops, (a) foliar exposure of NPs via. lipophilic
philic pathway; (b) uptake of NPs from soil in the root system. Reprinted with permission from Ref.
pathway; (b) uptake of NPs from soil in the root system. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [64].
[64]. 2021, Springer-Verlag.
2021, Springer-Verlag.

ZnO NPs
ZnO NPs are are crucial
crucialininreducing
reducingCdCd stress in rice
stress because
in rice becauseCd and
Cd andzinc zinc
(Zn) are
(Zn)envi-
are
ronmental competitors, share many chemical characteristics, and
environmental competitors, share many chemical characteristics, and have the same uptake have the same uptake
pathways in
pathways in plants.
plants. In In2019,
2019,Zhang
Zhangetetal.al.reported
reported that ZnO
that ZnONPs NPscould
could enhance
enhance soilsoil
pH
andand
pH reduce the toxic
reduce effecteffect
the toxic of Cd ofon Cd
rice.onThe higher
rice. Theconcentration had the most
higher concentration hadsignificant
the most
significant promotion effect on the early growth of rice, as demonstrated bythe
promotion effect on the early growth of rice, as demonstrated by increasing biomass,
increasing
the biomass, tiller number, and plant height of rice [19]. In the same year, Ali et al.sprays
tiller number, and plant height of rice [19]. In the same year, Ali et al. used foliar used
to increase
foliar spraysrice biomassrice
to increase andbiomass
photosynthesis using onlyusing
and photosynthesis ZnO NPsonly or
ZnOcombined with bio-
NPs or combined
char,biochar,
with with thewith
lattertheeffectively reducingreducing
latter effectively the Cd concentrations in rice roots
the Cd concentrations in and
rice increasing
roots and
Zn concentrations
increasing in rice rhizomes
Zn concentrations [66] (Figure
in rice rhizomes [66]8a,b). Similar
(Figure 8A,B).phenomena were observed
Similar phenomena were
by Faizan,by
observed Li,Faizan,
and Wang Li, andet al. [67–69].
Wang et al.ZnO NPs also
[67–69]. ZnOimproved the growththe
NPs also improved and photosyn-
growth and
thetic efficiencyefficiency
photosynthetic limit of ricelimitseedlings under chromium
of rice seedlings and arsenic
under chromium and stress
arsenic[70,71]
stress (Figure
[70,71]
8c). Arsenic
(Figure uptake by
8C). Arsenic rice seedlings
uptake was reduced
by rice seedlings by increasing
was reduced the rice the
by increasing biomass and Zn
rice biomass
content. Foliar sprays of ZnO NPs in the presence of salicylic acid alleviated
and Zn content. Foliar sprays of ZnO NPs in the presence of salicylic acid alleviated arsenic- arsenic-in-
duced oxidative
induced oxidativestress
stressininrice
ricethrough
throughtransient
transientexcitation
excitationof of the
the antioxidant
antioxidant system
system [72].
[72].
In addition,
In addition, Akhtar
Akhtar et et al.
al. found
found that
that ZnO
ZnO NPsNPs could
could reduce
reduce thethe gene
gene expression
expression induced
induced
by heavy metal stress in rice with the assistance of bacteria (Bacillus cereus and Lysinibacillus
macrolides) while increasing nitrogen content and protein expression, enhancing tolerance,
and reducing heavy metal (especially Cu and Pb) toxicity [73,74].
Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 22

Plants 2023, 12, 778

by heavy metal stress in rice with the assistance of bacteria (Bacillus cereus and Lysinibacil-
9 of 23
lus macrolides) while increasing nitrogen content and protein expression, enhancing toler-
ance, and reducing heavy metal (especially Cu and Pb) toxicity [73,74].

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 8.
Figure 8. (A) Concentrations and
(A) Concentrations and total
total uptake
uptake ofof Cd
Cd inin the
the shoots
shoots and
and roots
roots ofof rice
rice treated
treated with
with
biochar and ZnO NPs. (a) Cd concentrations in shoots; (b) Cd concentrations
biochar and ZnO NPs. (a) Cd concentrations in shoots; (b) Cd concentrations in shoots; (c) Cdin shoots; (c) Cd uptake
by shoots; (d) Cd uptake by roots. Values are means of four replications and bars represent standard
uptake by shoots; (d) Cd uptake by roots. Values are means of four replications and bars represent
deviation. Different letters demonstrate significant differences among treatments. In figures, ns =
standard deviation. Different letters demonstrate significant differences among treatments. In figures,
non-significant; * = significant at 0.05, ** =significant at 0.01, and *** = significant at 0.001 levels; (B)
ns = non-significant;
Concentrations of Zn*in= the
significant
shoots and at 0.05,
rootsand *** =treated
of rice significant
withat 0.001 levels;
biochar and ZnO (B)NPs.
Concentrations
(a) Zn con-
of Zn in the shoots and roots of rice treated with biochar and ZnO NPs. (a) Zn concentrations
centrations in shoots; (b) Zn concentrations in shoots. Values are means of four replications and bars in
shoots; (b)standard
represent Zn concentrations
deviation.inDifferent
shoots. Values
letters are means of four
demonstrate replications
significant and bars
differences amongrepresent
treat-
ments. Indeviation.
standard figures, nsDifferent
= non-significant; * = significant
letters demonstrate at 0.05,differences
significant ** = significant
among attreatments.
0.01, and *** In=figures,
signif-
icant
ns at 0.001 levels. Reprinted
= non-significant; with permission
* = significant at 0.05, andfrom *** =Ref. [66]. 2019,
significant Springer-Verlag;
at 0.001 (c) probable
levels. Reprinted with
model for Cr(VI)-induced
permission from Ref. [66]. stress
2019, and ZnO NPs’ action
Springer-Verlag; in response
(C) probable to Cr(VI)
model toxicity in rice stress
for Cr(VI)-induced seedlings.
and
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [70]. 2022, Elsevier.
ZnO NPs’ action in response to Cr(VI) toxicity in rice seedlings. Reprinted with permission from
Ref. [70]. 2022, Elsevier.
Furthermore, ZnO NPs play a significant additional role as a Zn supplement for
crops. In 2019, Bala
Furthermore, ZnO et al.
NPs implemented foliar additional
play a significant spraying of ZnO
role as aNPs on rice grown
Zn supplement forin Zn-
crops.
deficient
In soilsetand
2019, Bala found an increase
al. implemented foliarinspraying
Zn content in theNPs
of ZnO seeds,
on which provides
rice grown theoretical
in Zn-deficient
support
soils andforfoundthe anpositive
increase application
in Zn contentof nanoparticles
in the seeds, in cropprovides
which fertilizers [75]. In the
theoretical same
support
year, Itroutwar et al. showed positive effects on seedling parameters
for the positive application of nanoparticles in crop fertilizers [75]. In the same year, such as germination,
shoot length,
Itroutwar et al.root length,
showed and leaf
positive length
effects onofseedling
rice seeds using bio-derived
parameters ZnO NPs synthe-
such as germination, shoot
sized from
length, rootTurbinaria
length, and ornata extractof
leaf length [76].
riceWhen
seedsZnO usingNPs preparedZnO
bio-derived fromNPsbrown algae are
synthesized
applied
from to rice in
Turbinaria combination
ornata extract [76].with a conventional
When Zn sulfate
ZnO NPs prepared fertilizer,
from brownhigh-yielding
algae are appliedand
more
to ricenutritious
in combination(N, K, with
Zn) rice was obtained
a conventional Zn[21]. In 2021,
sulfate Sharma
fertilizer, et al. used and
high-yielding ZnOmoreNPs
prepared from
nutritious (N, K,aZn) Senna
riceoccidentalis
was obtained leaf[21].
as aInnano-initiator
2021, Sharma to pre-treat
et al. used ZnO seeds
NPs ofprepared
an early
flowering
from a Senna pure mutant to
occidentalis improve
leaf rice seed germination,
as a nano-initiator to pre-treat seedling
seeds of an vigor,
earlyand zinc content
flowering pure
mutant to improve
in seedlings rice seed
[77] (Figure 9a).germination,
Adhikary et seedling vigor,the
al. adopted andidea
zincandcontent
usedinZnOseedlings
NPs [77]
and
(Figure
selenium 9a).asAdhikary
initiatorset foral.rice
adopted
seeds the
[78],idea and enhanced
which used ZnO seedNPs andvigorselenium as initiators
and improved con-
for rice such
ditions seedsas[78],
poorwhich
seedling enhanced
emergence seedtriggered
vigor and by improved
direct sowing conditions
practiced such as poor
for rice cul-
seedling
tivation in emergence
South Asia. triggered by direct
In addition, sowing
Elshayb et practiced
al. sprayed forZnO
rice NPs
cultivation
on riceinwith
South Asia.
biochar
In addition,
(BC) as a soil Elshayb et al. sprayed
amendment. ZnO NPs
They found thatonthisrice with biochar
approach could(BC) as a soil
mitigate theamendment.
adverse ef-
They
fects of rice growth due to water deficiency and improve water use efficiencydue
found that this approach could mitigate the adverse effects of rice growth [79]to(Figure
water
deficiency and improve
9b) holds promise water use
for achieving theefficiency [79] (Figure
goal of increasing food9b)production
holds promise forregions.
in arid achieving
the goal of increasing food production in arid regions.
The effect of ZnO NPs on rice is greater on Zn2+ , and the mechanism of its induced
changes in rice physiological levels and interactions with molecules such as polyethylene
glycol has not been given a comprehensive explanation. Future studies could focus on the
biotransformation of ZnO NPs occurring in rice and the plant responses induced by the
co-occurrence effects with other media in the rice field such as the inter-competitive effects
of Cd2+ . This provides a theoretical basis for improving food quality, safety issues, and
agricultural yields.
Plants 2023, 12,
Plants 2023, 12, 778
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 22
10 of of 23

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 9. (a) Expected
9. (a) Expectedmechanism
mechanismofofZnO-nanoparticle-induced
ZnO-nanoparticle-induced germination
germination in rice
in rice seeds.
seeds. Re-
Reprinted
printed with permission from Ref. [77]. 2021, Elsevier; (b) interaction effects between irrigation def-
with permission from Ref. [77]. 2021, Elsevier; (b) interaction effects between irrigation deficit and
icit and applications of biochar, ZnO NPs, and their combination treatments on water use efficacy
applications
(WUE) duringofthebiochar, ZnO
2019 and NPs,
2020 and their
seasons. combination
Reprinted treatments
with permission onRef.
from water use
[79]. efficacy
2022, (WUE)
Multidis-
ciplinary Digital Publishing Institute.
during the 2019 and 2020 seasons. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [79]. 2022, Multidisciplinary
Digital Publishing Institute.
The effect of ZnO NPs on rice is greater on Zn2+, and the mechanism of its induced
2.4. Other Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
changes in rice physiological levels and interactions with molecules such as polyethylene
glycolCerium
has notdioxide
been given a comprehensive
nanoparticles explanation.
(CeO2 NPs) have theFuture
uniquestudies could
electronic focus
layer on the of
structure
biotransformation of ZnO NPs occurring in rice and the plant responses induced by the
rare earth elements and strong redox ability and are often used in biomedical antioxidants,
co-occurrence effects with
automotive catalysts, other mediamaterials,
UV-absorbing in the riceand
fieldantimicrobial
such as the inter-competitive effects
functional materials [80].
of Cdnanomaterial
This 2+. This provides a theoretical
gradually basis
flows into thefor improving with
environment food the
quality, safety
emission issues, and
of exhaust gases
agricultural
and vehicleyields.
exhaust is absorbed by rice through the root system and stomata, etc., and
affects the growth and development of rice [81].
2.4. Other Metal Oxide
The effects Nanoparticles
of CeO 2 NPs on oxidative stress, membrane damage, antioxidant enzyme
activity, and macromolecular changes in the roots of rice seedlings were investigated by
Cerium dioxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) have the unique electronic layer structure
Rico et al. in 2013 [82]. They noted that the cerium content in rice positively correlated with
of rare earth elements and strong redox ability and are often used in biomedical antioxi-
the concentration of nanoparticles, but the impacts on rice seedlings were insignificant [83]
dants, automotive catalysts, UV-absorbing materials, and antimicrobial functional mate-
(Figure 10). The team analyzed the effects of CeO NPs on cerium (Ce) accumulation,
rials [80]. This nanomaterial gradually flows into the2 environment with the emission of
antioxidant properties, and nutrient composition in three rice varieties with high, medium,
exhaust gases and vehicle exhaust is absorbed by rice through the root system and sto-
and low straight-chain starch, and found that CeO2 NPs were able to reduce the content
mata, etc., and affects the growth and development of rice [81].
of iron, proline, and starch in rice grains, and reduce all of the antioxidant values in the
The effects of CeO2 NPs on oxidative stress, membrane damage, antioxidant enzyme
grains except for flavonoids. Rice of medium straight-chain starch varieties was the most
activity, and macromolecular changes in the roots of rice seedlings were investigated by
sensitive to CeO NPs [84]. Rico et al. later found that CeO2 NPs could promote protein
Rico et al. in 20132 [82]. They noted that the cerium content in rice positively correlated
synthesis and change the carbohydrate composition in the xylem of rice roots [85]. Citric
with the concentration of nanoparticles, but the impacts on rice seedlings were insignifi-
acid secreted by rice roots helps CeO2 NPs to accomplish more cerium accumulation in
cant [83] (Figure 10). The team analyzed the effects of CeO2 NPs on cerium (Ce) accumu-
rice, while the iron film formed on the root surface of rice in an iron-rich environment can
lation, antioxidant properties, and nutrient composition in three rice varieties with high,
reduce the cerium content in rice in the presence of citric acid [81]. Additionally, CeO NPs
medium, and low straight-chain starch, and found that CeO2 NPs were able to reduce 2the
with a polyacrylic acid coating could regulate the expression of nitrate reductase genes,
content of iron, proline, and starch in rice grains, and reduce all of the antioxidant values
promote NO synthesis, and ultimately enhance the salt tolerance of rice [86]. This study
in the grains except for flavonoids. Rice of medium straight-chain starch varieties was the
enhanced the salt tolerance and yield of rice without increasing the cerium content in rice
most sensitive to CeO2 NPs [84]. Rico et al. later found that CeO2 NPs could promote pro-
seeds, opening a new pathway to improve the yield and resistance of saline crops.
tein synthesis and change the carbohydrate composition in the xylem of rice roots [85].
As research continues, researchers believe that the biological effects of CeO2 NPs on
Citric acid secreted by rice roots helps CeO2 NPs to accomplish more cerium accumulation
rice may be biphasic. Zhang et al. found that CeO2 NPs had a ‘low promotion and high
in rice, while the iron film formed on the root surface of rice in an iron-rich environment
inhibition’ effect on the growth and development of rice when grown on flooded soil and
can reduce the cerium content in rice in the presence of citric acid [81]. Additionally, CeO2
aerobic soil, with a more pronounced effect in rice grown on flooded soil. Rice grown
NPs with a polyacrylic acid coating could regulate the expression of nitrate reductase
in flooded soil had higher cerium levels in its shoots. This phenomenon may be due to
genes, promote NO synthesis, and ultimately enhance the salt tolerance of rice [86]. This
the soil’s lower pH and redox potential due to its contact with water, which affects the
 Plants 2023, 12, 778 11 of 23

accumulation and transformation of CeO2 NPs in rice [80] (Figure 11). It has also been
Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW shown that under hydroponic conditions, CeO2 NPs alleviate oxidative damage in 11 riceofdue
22
to nitrogen stress [15]. In contrast, when the nitrogen supply is normal, CeO2 NPs trigger
oxidative stress and inhibit the normal growth of rice. In 2020, Peng et al. explored the
bioavailability and transport of three types of nanoparticles in soil and rice, i.e., zinc oxide,
study
copper enhanced the cerium
oxide, and salt tolerance
oxide. and
The yield
MONPsof rice without
altered increasing
the soil the while
properties ceriumthecontent
effects
inonrice seeds, opening a new pathway to improve the yield and resistance of saline
plant growth were inextricably linked to the type and solubility of the MONPs. This crops.
work was crucial for assessing the environmental risk of MONPs in soil and ensuring the
safety of agricultural products [87].

Figure
Figure10.10.Cerium
Ceriumconcentration (a), H
concentration (a), H22O
O22 generation
generation (b),
(b),electrolyte
electrolyteleakage
leakage(c),
(c),
andand TBARS
TBARS con-
contents
tents
(d) in(d) in seedling
seedling tissues
tissues of a amylose
of a high high amylose rice variety
rice variety germinated
germinated and grown
and grown in nCeO in2nCeO 2 suspen-
suspensions for
sions for 10
10 days. days.
Means Means
with with letter
the same the same letter
are not are not significantly
significantly different
different at Tukey’s testat(pTukey’s
≤ 0.05).test (p ≤
Reprinted
0.05).
with Reprinted
permissionwith
frompermission from American
Ref. [83]. 2021, Ref. [83]. 2021, American
Chemical Chemical Society.
Society.

As researchdioxide
Titanium continues, researchersare
nanoparticles believe
used that the biological
in fertilizers, effects
coatings, of CeOpesticides,
plastics, 2 NPs on

rice may be biphasic. Zhang et al. found that CeO2 NPs had a ‘low promotion and
cosmetics, etc. [88]. These applications provide opportunities for the influx of high
titanium
inhibition’ effect on the growth and development of rice when grown on flooded soilofand
dioxide nanoparticles into agroecosystems. It is critical to understand the impact this
aerobic soil, with a more pronounced effect in rice grown on flooded soil. Rice grown in
nanomaterial on rice growth.
flooded soil had
Studies higher
have shown cerium
that levels in itscan
TiO2 NPs shoots.
reduceThis phenomenon
rice may be antioxidant
biomass, enhance due to the
soil’s
systemlower pH and
defense, andredox potential
interfere with due to its contact[89].
rice metabolism withBywater, which energy
improving affects the accu-in
storage
mulation and transformation of CeO2 NPs in rice [80] (Figure 11). It has also been shown
photosynthesis and decreasing energy waste in rice metabolism, TiO 2 NPs can improve
riceunder
that growth and increase
hydroponic rice yield
conditions, CeO[88]. (Figure 12a). Further investigation revealed
2 NPs alleviate oxidative damage in rice due to
that 750 mg/kg of TiO NPs decreased rice
nitrogen stress [15]. In contrast, when the nitrogen
2 growthsupplyand enzyme activity
is normal, CeOin the soil, but
2 NPs trigger
500 mg/kg of TiO NPs co-treated with 20 mg/kg of phosphorus or
oxidative stress and2inhibit the normal growth of rice. In 2020, Peng et al. explored the pulverized clay
promoted rice growth and development [90,91]. These papers offer important
bioavailability and transport of three types of nanoparticles in soil and rice, i.e., zinc oxide, information
about oxide,
copper the potential uses oxide.
and cerium and dangers of titanium
The MONPs altereddioxide
the soilnanoparticles
properties while in agricultural
the effects
productivity.
on plant growth were inextricably linked to the type and solubility of the MONPs. This
work was crucial for assessing the environmental risk of MONPs in soil and ensuring the
safety of agricultural products [87].
Plants 2023, 12, 778 12 of 23

Figure 11. Nano-Fe3 O4 -modified biochar promotes Fe film formation and Cd fixation in rice roots.
Reprinted with permission from Ref. [80]. 2021, American Chemical Society.

TiO2 NPs are similar to the previously mentioned MONPs and can also alleviate the
toxic effects of Cd and arsenic on rice [20,92–94]. Moreover, the combined action of TiO2
and CeO2 nanoparticles and humic acid can reduce the adsorption of Cu to seedlings
and alleviate the toxic effect of Cu on seedlings [95]. In contrast, its co-treatment with
tetracycline on rice seedlings leads to severe iron deficiency in rice as tetracycline increases
the accumulation of titanium in rice, while TiO2 NPs inhibit the adsorption of tetracycline
to rice and alleviate the toxic effect of tetracycline on rice [96]. These studies have focused
on the potential effects of nanoparticles on crops under conditions of coexistence with other
environmental pollutants, facilitating future remediation of complex environments. Based
on earlier research, Du et al. observed rice throughout its entire life cycle and found that
elevated CO2 concentrations could encourage rice growth when TiO2 NPs were present [97]
(Figure 12b,c) and that an increase in CO2 would alter the nutrient value of TiO2 NPs for
Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 22
rice and the function of the soil microbial community [98]. The team’s findings provide
new ideas on the tolerance of rice to climate and environmental changes.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 12.
Figure 12. (a) Photosynthesis and
(a) Photosynthesis related metabolic
and related metabolic mechanisms
mechanisms of of TiO
TiO 2 nanoparticles
nanoparticles for
for rice
rice
2
growth. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [88]. 2020, Springer-Verlag; (b) number of differen-
growth. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [88]. 2020, Springer-Verlag; (b) number of differentially
tially expressed genes (DEGs) between each group; (c) Venn diagram showing the number of sig-
expressed genes (DEGs) between each group; (c) Venn diagram showing the number of significant
nificant DEGs in each group. CA, CF, TA, and TF indicate ambient CO2 control, elevated CO2 con-
DEGs in each group.
trol, ambient CA,nano-TiO
CO2 with CF, TA, and TF indicate ambient CO2 control,2,elevated
2, and elevated CO2 with nano-TiO
CO2 control,
respectively. ambient
Reprinted with
CO with
permission
2 nano-TiO
from Ref., and elevated CO
2 [97]. 2019, American with nano-TiO
2 Chemical Society.
2 , respectively. Reprinted with permission
from Ref. [97]. 2019, American Chemical Society.
In addition, α-MoO3 nanoparticles also have toxic effects on rice seedlings, leading
to oxidative stress in rice [16]. High concentrations of Y2O3 nanoparticles not only inhibit
1
rice germination and root growth, but also cause oxidative damage to rice cells. However,
low concentrations of Y2O3 nanoparticles can promote the growth and development of
rice seedling roots [99]. In addition, Ahmed et al. synthesized magnesium oxide nanopar-
ticles to alleviate the stressful effects of arsenic on rice using natural enterobacteria. The
Plants 2023, 12, 778 13 of 23

In addition, α-MoO3 nanoparticles also have toxic effects on rice seedlings, leading
to oxidative stress in rice [16]. High concentrations of Y2 O3 nanoparticles not only inhibit
rice germination and root growth, but also cause oxidative damage to rice cells. However,
low concentrations of Y2 O3 nanoparticles can promote the growth and development of rice
seedling roots [99]. In addition, Ahmed et al. synthesized magnesium oxide nanoparticles
to alleviate the stressful effects of arsenic on rice using natural enterobacteria. The nanopar-
ticles could significantly inhibit the uptake of arsenic in rice, promote the growth of rice
under arsenic stress, and reduce oxidative damage in rice [100].
In summary, CeO2 NPs and TiO2 NPs have a dual effect on rice, while both help to
ameliorate the stress on rice growth by other environmental pollutants in the environment.
It is noteworthy that two nanomaterials should be the next topic of focus in enhancing the
tolerance of rice facing harsh climatic and environmental changes. The effects of MONPs
other than these two on rice growth and development have only been reported sporadi-
cally. There are still many gaps in the mechanisms related to the effects of nanomaterials
on rice growth and development, and future studies should clarify their accumulation,
transport mechanisms, and biotransformation within rice at different times, focusing on
the potential effects of the combined effects of these nanomaterials and complex factors in
the environment on rice growth and development.
Considering the dual effects of MONPs on rice growth and development, the important
indicators are summarized (Tables 1 and 2).

Table 1. Toxic effects of metal oxide nanoparticles on rice growth.

Types of Metal
Oxide Particle Size Concentration Exposure Time Effects References
Nanoparticles
It causes oxidative damage to rice,
62.5, 125, and reduces the synthesis of chlorophyll
<50 nm 7 days [46]
250 mg/L and carotenoids, and inhibits the
growth of rice seedlings.
It inhibited rice germination and root
0.5 mM, 1.0 vigor, reduced carotenoid content,
<50 nm mM, and 1.5 14 days and increased rice proline, [47]
mM malondialdehyde, and
hydrogen peroxide.
It disrupted rice cell metabolism,
DNA damage, and inhibition of
<50 nm 5 mg/L 3 days [13]
OsCDC2 and OsCYCD expression in
Copper oxide rice roots.
nanoparticles
Increased Cu, prolineand soluble
10, 50, 100, 500,
sugar content in rice rhizomes to
40 nm 1000, and 7 days [48]
inhibit seed germinationand early
2000 mg/L
seedling growth.
It promotes Cu uptake, induces
2.5, 10, 50, 100, oxidative stress, and inhibits
<50 nm 30 days [44]
and 1000 mg/L germination rate, photosynthesis, and
root and stem elongation in rice.
Inhibiting photosynthesis, decreasing
ascorbic acid content, increasing
1, 5, 10, 20, 30,
H2 O2 , malondialdehyde content and
<50 nm 40, 50, and 120 days [49]
antioxidant enzyme activities, CuO
100 mg/L
NPs above 50 mg/L produced
oxidative damage to rice plants.
Plants 2023, 12, 778 14 of 23

Table 1. Cont.

Types of Metal
Oxide Particle Size Concentration Exposure Time Effects References
Nanoparticles
CuO NPs accumulate in chloroplasts,
2.5, 10, 50, 100,
<50 nm 30 days leading to delamination and [50]
and 1000 mg/L
deformation of the cystoid membrane.
It causes oxidative damage to rice and
25, 50, and reduces rice seedling biomass and
<50 nm 7 days [14]
100 mg/L chlorophyll content to inhibit the
growth of rice seedlings.
<5 nm 2000 mg/L 7 days Inhibition of rice root elongation. [61]
Zinc oxide Reduced chlorophyll content of rice
nanoparticles seedlings, induced stomatal closure
100, 250, 500,
30 nm 7 days and ultrastructural damage through [62]
and 750 mg/L
oxidative stress, and induced ethylene
biosynthesis in rice seedlings.
Hourly It inhibits the elongation of rice
10, 50, 100, and
37 ± 2 nm treatment for rootstocks and reduces dry and fresh [64]
500 mg/L
10 h, 4 weeks weight and photosynthetic efficiency.
62.5, 125, 250, It inhibits antioxidant enzyme activity
8 ± 1 nm 10 days [82]
and 500 mg/L and causes membrane damage.
High concentrations caused enhanced
62.5, 125, 250,
8 ± 1 nm 10 days electrolyte leakage and lipid [83]
and 500 mg/L
peroxidation in seedlings.
Reduces the content of iron, proline
and starch in rice grains, and reduces
8 ±1 nm 500 mg/kg 135 days [84]
all antioxidant values in grains except
Cerium Oxide for flavonoids.
Nanoparticles
Decrease protein and soluble sugar
content in the root system, inhibit the
<25 nm 500 mg/kg 28 days [80]
uptake and accumulation of macro
trace elements in rice seedlings, etc.
The presence of cerium oxide
100 and nanoparticles triggers oxidative stress
23.5 ± 6.7 nm 3 weeks [15]
500 mg/L and inhibits average growth in rice
when Nitrogen supply is normal.
Reducing the biomass of rice,
100, 250, and enhancing the antioxidant system’s
293 ± 17 nm 14 days [89]
500 mg/L defense and interfering with
Titanium
rice’s metabolism.
dioxide
nanoparticles After 15 days 750 mg/kg exhibited toxic effects of
500 and of incubation reduced biomass, increased H2 O2
26.5 nm [90]
750 mg/kg to nutrition production, lipid peroxidationand
stage electrolyte leakage.
Molybdenum Reduced rice photosynthetic pigment
100, 500, and
oxide 21.34 nm 10 days levels and caused oxidative stress [16]
1000 ppm
nanoparticles in rice.
High concentrations inhibit rice
Yttrium oxide 1, 5, 10, 20, and
20–30 nm 7 days germination and root growth and cause [99]
nanoparticles 50 mg/L
oxidative damage to rice cells.
Plants 2023, 12, 778 15 of 23

Table 2. Positive effects of metal oxide nanoparticles on rice growth.

Types of Metal
Oxide Particle Size Concentration Exposure Time Effects References
Nanoparticles
500, 1000, and Promote the growth of the rice
6 nm 14 weeks [22]
2000 mg/L root system.
Increase α-amylase activity, promote
20 and starch decomposition, and improve rice
28 nm 24 h [24]
40 mg/L seed germination rate and
seedling vigor.
Under calcium stress, the nanoparticles
enhanced bioproductivity,
<10 nm 20 mg/L 21 days photosynthetic electron transport, [26]
antioxidant enzyme activity, and iron
accumulation.
Alleviating oxidative stress in rice
improves plant growth under iron
50, 250, and
20–30 nm 2 weeks deficiency conditions and regulates [23]
500 mg/L
iron-deficiency-induced
phytohormones.
Promote the growth, reactive oxygen
species production, antioxidant
enzyme activity, and chlorophyll
14.1 nm 2000 mg/L 5 days [29]
content of rice seedlings. Alleviate the
physiological toxicity of 3-nitrophenol
to rice seedlings.
Increasing chlorophyll and potassium
content helps to alleviate oxidative
Iron oxide 10–50 nm 0.0025 mg/kg 40 days [17]
stress under cadmium (Cd) and
nanoparticles sodium stress.
Increasing rice biomass and iron
10, 20, and
50–100 nm 3 weeks concentration in rice reduces the [32]
30 mg/L
enrichment of Cd in rice.
They improve rice plant biomass,
antioxidant enzyme content, and
25, 50, and
18–94 nm 30 days photosynthetic efficiency, reduces [34]
100 mg/kg
reactive oxygen species, and alleviates
Cd and drought stress.
Increase in dry weight of rice and
40 and
NA * 6 days transport and accumulation of Cd in [33]
320 mg/L
rice tissues.
Reduce the concentration of lead in rice
5–10 nm 125 mg/kg 15 days [35]
roots and shoots.
Better performance in preventing the
21.3 nm 200 mg/L 5 days transport of arsenic (As) to the [36]
above-ground parts of rice seedlings.
5, 10, and They inhibit the uptake of As in rice
60–80 nm 5 days [37]
15 ppm and promote plant growth.
They improve iron uptake and
25 and
20–30 nm 21 days resistance to oxidative stress in rice and [38]
50 mg/L
reduce As accumulation in rice.
Plants 2023, 12, 778 16 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

Types of Metal
Oxide Particle Size Concentration Exposure Time Effects References
Nanoparticles
They have a good effect in inducing
40 ± 5 nm 1–20 mg/L 10–12 weeks [55]
rice healing tissue formation.
Increased iron content and expression
75, 150, 300,
10–100 nm 4 months of growth-hormone-related genes in [56]
and 600 mg/kg
cultivated rice seeds.
Mitigating the adverse effects of As
Copper Oxide 0.1, 1, 10, 50, stress on rice shoot length and root
Nanoparticles NA * 18 days [18]
and 100 mg/L branch number, and reducing As
uptake by rice.
The accelerated tassel stage helps
23–37 nm 0.1–100 mg/L 131 days shorten rice’s life cycle, thus reducing [57]
the accumulation of As in the seeds.
Mitigate the phytotoxicity of As,
9–22 nm 100 mg/kg 104 days improve rice yield, and alter the [59]
accumulation of As in rice tissues.
The higher the concentration, the more
significant the promotion effect on the
50, 100, and
30–40 nm 4 months early growth of rice, which can increase [19]
500 mg,/kg
the biomass, tiller number, and plant
height of rice.
Increasing the biomass and
Spray on the
photosynthesis of rice plants
14th, 21st, 28th,
50, 75, and significantly reduced the concentration
20–30 nm and 35th day [66]
100 mg/L of Cd in seedlings and roots and
after
increased the concentration of Zn in
transplanting
seedlings and roots.
Increasing rice biomass, photosynthesis,
protein, antioxidant enzyme activity,
11–21 nm 50 mg/L 5 days [67]
mineral nutrient content and reducing
Zinc oxide Cd levels all had significant effects.
nanoparticles
25, 50, and Promoting the growth of rice seedlings
30 ± 10 nm 20 h [68]
100 mg/L under Cd stress.
Promoting the growth of rice seedlings
15–137 nm 100 mg/L 6 days under As stress and inhibiting As [69]
uptake by rice.
Reduce the toxicity of chromium (Cr) to
<100 nm 25 µM 7 days rice and promote the growth of [70]
rice seedlings.
They promoted rice germination,
10, 20, 50, 100, increased rice biomass and Zn content,
20–30 nm 12 days [71]
and 200 mg/L and inhibited the accumulation of As
in rice.
Mitigation of oxidative stress induced
30 nm 1000 mg/L 7 days [72]
by As stress in rice.
Increase the tolerance index of rice and
5, 10, 15, 20,
30–70 nm 7 days reduce the toxic effects of Pb and Cu [73]
and 25 mg/L
on rice.
Plants 2023, 12, 778 17 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

Types of Metal
Oxide Particle Size Concentration Exposure Time Effects References
Nanoparticles
Reduced stress-induced gene
expression and increased nitrogen
30–50 nm 5 and 10 mg/L 21 days [74]
protein content and protein expression
in rice.
Increase the zinc content in rice and
0, 0.5, 1, and 60 days (every
50–70 nm reduce the symptoms of zinc deficiency [75]
5 g/L 15 days)
in rice.
5, 10, 25, 50, Significantly improved the rice
14.95 nm 100, and 12 h germination rate, increased stem and [76]
200 mg/L root length and seedling vigor, etc.
20, 40, and Improved rice yield and enriched rice
31.4 nm 4 days [21]
60 mg/L seed nutrition.
Promote rice germination and increase
40–100 nm 20 mg/L 24 h antioxidant enzyme activity, seedling [77]
length, and fresh weight, etc.
Increase chlorophyll, phenol and
<10 nm 10 µmol 7 days protein content, leaf area index, growth [78]
rate, and rice yield.
Physiological traits such as chlorophyll
Irrigation every content, relative water content, plant
48.70 nm 50 mg/L 3, 6, 9, and height, leaf area index, and [79]
12 days yield-related components were
significantly increased.
Promoting protein synthesis in rice
231 ± 16 nm ≥125 mg/L 4 days roots and changing carbohydrate [85]
composition in the xylem of rice roots.
Cerium Oxide Regulation of nitrate reductase gene
Nanoparticles 98 µg/L and 8 days and expression to promote NO synthesis
5.6 ± 0.2 nm [86]
0.98 mg/L 2 months and ultimately enhance salt tolerance
in rice.
100 and Mitigation of oxidative damage in rice
23.5 ± 6.7 nm 3 weeks [15]
500 mg/L due to nitrogen stress.
Increase energy storage in
0.1, 1, 10, and photosynthesis, reduce energy loss in
5–10 nm 21 days [88]
100 mg/L rice metabolism, realize the promotion
of rice growth, and increase rice yield.
Increasing chlorophyll content and
32.7 nm 500 mg/kg 10 weeks [91]
Titanium stem and root length in rice.
dioxide Improved photosynthetic efficiency
nanoparticle 100 and and chlorophyll content and reduced
18–166 nm 10 days [20]
1000 mg/L Cd uptake and distribution in rice roots
and leaves.
Increasing chlorophyll content and rice
5, 10, 20, and 4 weeks (once
60 ± 11 nm biomass and reducing Cd uptake [92]
30 mg/L every week)
in rice.
10, 100, and Reduced As uptake and oxidative
NA * 7 days [93]
1000 mg/L stress in rice.
Plants 2023, 12, 778 18 of 23

Table 2. Cont.

Types of Metal
Oxide Particle Size Concentration Exposure Time Effects References
Nanoparticles
They significantly increased plant
height and total chlorophyll content at
50, 100, and the tillering stage, reduced
20–40 nm 3 months [94]
500 mg/kg malondialdehyde content at the
gestation stage, and reduced hydrogen
peroxide content at the tasseling stage.
Reduce the adsorption of Cu to
100 and
<20 nm 3 days seedlings and alleviate the toxic effect [95]
1000 mg/L
of Cu on seedlings.
Inhibited the adsorption of tetracycline
500, 1000, and
10–25 nm 10 days to rice and alleviated the toxic effect of [96]
2000 mg/L
tetracycline on rice.
Under the condition of elevated CO2
concentration, they increased rice plant
< 100 nm 200 mg/kg 132 days [97]
height, stem biomass, and spike
biomass and promoted rice growth.
Under the condition of elevated CO2
concentration, they can promote the
50 and
20–100 nm 6 months growth of rice and increase the content [98]
200 mg/kg
of calcium, magnesium, manganese,
phosphorus, zinc, and titanium.
Molybdenum
1, 5, and Promote the growth and development
oxide 20–30 nm 4 h and 15 days [99]
10 mg/L of rice seedling roots.
nanoparticles
Significantly inhibit the uptake of As in
Yttrium oxide rice, promote the growth of rice under
38–57 nm 200 mg/kg 30 days [100]
nanoparticles As stress, and reduce oxidative damage
in rice.
* Note: “NA” in the table means the related information is not provided or available.

3. Conclusions and Outlook

Studies conducted in the past have demonstrated that all of the effects of metal oxide
nanoparticles on rice development and growth have a two-fold biological effect. Even
though the results of the current study indicate that iron oxide nanoparticles have no
discernible toxic effects on rice, further research is needed to determine how to prevent
and control the contamination of rice farmland with iron oxide nanoparticles in order to
take the necessary precautions. There have been few investigations on the phytotoxicity of
other metal oxide nanoparticles on rice, and the deeper molecular causes are still unclear.
In order to maximize the benefits of nanoparticles in promoting sustainable agriculture
while minimizing the ecological threat of nanomaterials and managing environmental risks,
high-throughput fast detection systems must be developed.
The findings of the study on the phytotoxicity of conventional nanoparticles can be
used to inform the investigation of current metal oxide nanomaterials on rice growth and
development. For instance, the reaction to oxidative stress, the precipitation of metal
ions, the application method, the exposure level, etc. In order to increase agricultural
rice production, special consideration should be given to the impacts of metal oxide
nanoparticles on rice throughout its life cycle. Due to the complexity of the agroecological
environment, research should not only focus on one metal oxide nanomaterial’s effect
on rice growth but also on the combined effect of nanomaterials and other media in the
ecosystem on rice growth. It can also examine how rice responds behaviorally to essential
Plants 2023, 12, 778 19 of 23

elements, how metal oxide nanomaterials transform, how much rice is produced, and the
quality of the seeds.
More importantly, nano-fertilizers have a large market for MONPs. The use of MONPs
should be rigorously regulated in terms of timing and frequency, and their content should
undergo frequent testing. Avoid secondary harm to rice as much as you can from improper
application and excessive concentration. Additionally, the real environmental release of
metal oxide nanoparticles, their environmental stability, and the combined effects of wind,
heat, rain, and drought must all be taken into account when applying the theoretical
advice of the laboratory findings to on-farm production. This offers a workable way to
enhance the growth, quality, and yield of rice in agricultural lands that are dry, salty, and
excessively polluted.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.W. and K.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.X.
and Q.Z.; writing—review and editing, M.X., Q.Z., X.C. and L.G.; supervision, Y.S. and Y.H.; funding
acquisition, X.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was financially supported by the following grants: Jilin Province Agricultural
Science and Technology Innovation Project (Grant No. CXGC2021ZD007), the National Natural
Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 31870486), the Department of Jilin Province Science and Tech-
nology (Grant Nos. 20210509019RQ, 20210203011SF, 20210101023JC, 20210203019SF, 20220203054SF
and 20220420060GH), and the Natural Science Foundation of Changchun Normal University (Grant
No. KXK2020002).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We thank the Home for Researchers editorial team (accessed on 7 November
2022 www.home-for-researchers.com) for their language editing service.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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