LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 FUNCTION
- Primary; drain from tissue spaces protein containing fluid that escapes from the blood capillaries
- Transports fats from the digestive tract – to the blood to produce lymphocytes and immunities
- Transports a fluid called LYMPH through special vessels called LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES and
LYMPHATICS
- Essential to helping us control and destroy a large number of microorganisms that can invade our
bodies and cause disease and even death

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- 1 way direction : tissues -> circulatory system
- Fluid: blood cap. -> Inter.spaces -> Lymphatic cap. (Lymph)
Lymphatic capillaries
- Close-ended, permeable
- No basement membrane

 Valves – overlapping squamous epithelium

EXCEPTIONS:
1. CNS
2. Cartilages & epidermis (lack blood vessels)
3. Bone marrow
 Superficial group – drains dermis
 Deep group – drains muscle, viscera, deep structures

Lymphatic Vessels
- Formed by Lymphatic capillaries
 Small lymphatic vessels – beaded appearance: 1 way valve

Cause of L.V. compression:

1. Skeletal muscle contraction
2. Smooth muscle contraction
3. Pressure changes in thorax
RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT – right half of head, neck, chest, upper limb -> RIGHT SUBCLAVIAN
THORACIC DUCT – rest of the body -> LEFT SUBCLAVIAN

(L4TTS)
1. Lymph
2. Lymphocytes
3. Lymph nodes
4. Lymphatic vessels
5. Tonsils
6. Thymus
7. Spleen

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LYMPHATIC ORGANS

 Lymphatic tissue
- Reticular fibers, macrophages, lymphocytes
a. Lymphocytes
- Blood: RBM -> lymphatic organs
- Presence of pathogens: divide & multiply
- Increase lymphocytes = immune response
b. Reticular fibers
- form intercalated networks that HOLDS LYMPHOCYTES & cells in place
- when lymph/blood -> organs: they traps microorg & other items in the fluid
1. TONSILS
- Form protective ring of lymphatic tissues around nasal, oral & pharynx
- Protection against pathogens from nose & mouth
- May decrease in size or disappear
- It is responsible for cleaning/screening of the food we eat
- It has three kinds; PARYNGEAL, PALATINE, LINGUAL
3 groups:
a. PALATINE
- posterior opening of ORAL CAVITY
- TRUE TONSILS
b. PHARYNGEAL
- Internal opening of NASAL CAVITY
- When enlarged – ADENOID (interfere normal breathing)
c. LINGUAL
- Posterior surface of the TONGUE
- LESS INFECTED, more difficult to remove

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2. LYMPH NODES

- Rounded, vary in size: small seed -> shelled almond

- Distributed along LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- Lymph-> (atleast 1) Lymph nodes -> blood
- Remove BACTERIA & TUMOR CELLS by producing lymphocytes
- It is responsible for cleansing the blood
- They have valves

3 superficial aggregations:
1. Inguinal/groin
2. Axillary
3. Cervical/neck
 Capsule
- dense C.T that surrounds lymph node

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  Trabeculae
- extension of capsule
- subdivide lymph nodes into compartments containing:
a. lymphatic tissue – LYMPHOCYTES & cells that can form LYMPHATIC NODULES
b. lymphatic sinuses- spaces btwn lymphatic tissue contains MACROPHAGES
LYMPH: afferent (enters) -> Lymph nodes -> lymphatic tissue & sinuses -> efferent (exits)
FUNCTION DURING TRANSPORTATION:
a. activate immune system
 pathogens in lymph will stimulate lymphocytes in lymphatic tissue to divide
 germinal terminals - lymphatic nodules with rapidly dividing lymphocytes
 newly produce lympho ->lymph -> blood -> lymphatic tissue
b. remove pathogens from lymph through macrophages

3. SPLEEN
- clenched fist
- superior corner of abdominal cavity
- has an CAPSULE & TRABECULAE
- Loc. Seen on the left side (9th – 11th ribs)
2 specialized lymphatic tissue:
a. white pulp
- arteries
- lymphocytes are stimulated = lymph nodes
- responsible for the production of lymphocytes (B&T cells; carry out immune function)
b. red pulp
- veins; macrophages, RBCs
- responsible in phagocytizing any immature, old, dead blood cells
FUNCTIONS:

1. filters blood
2. act as reservoir (DURING HEMMORHAGE)
3. activation of immune response

4. THYMUS
- Bi-lobed gland, triangular, superior mediastinum
- with capsule & trabeculae
- site for maturation of T cells
- Loc. In between the lungs
- It is the site for Lymphocytes and its maturation
- We have it as early as 8 mos. (in pregnancy)
- It becomes very small at the age of 40 years and disappears at 60 years

Lymphocytes near capsule form:

a. cortex – dark-staining; numerous lymphocytes
b. medulla – light staining; few lymphocytes
 matured T cells-> medulla -> blood -> lymphatic tissue

 lymph vessels/capillaries
- remove fluid from tissues

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 - absorbs lipids from small intestines

2 TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTES
A. B CELLS -RBW
B. T CELLS – RBW -> thymus

5. PEYER’S PATCHES

- Loc.; found in the walls of Small Intestine

- A. K. A. The tonsils of the small intestine
- Monitors the intestinal bacteria populations and preventing the growth of pathogenic bacteria in the
intestines

6. APPENDIX

- Loc.; Large intestine; Secum

- Assists in the maturation of B-Lymphocytes (produces antibodies)
- It produces IgA (Antibodies that are found in exocrine gland secretions, nasal fluid, tears, gastric and
intestinal juices, bile, breast milk, and urine)

7. BONE MARROW

- Loc.; Children; long bones, Adult; flat bones

- Generates blood cells (RBC, WBC, Platelets)
- Red marrow – Hematopoietic Stem Cells, responsible for blood cells production
- Yellow Marrow – stores fat cells

IMMUNITY
 Ability to resist damage from pathogens

A. INNATE IMMUNITY
 Non-specific resistance
 Body recognize & destroys pathogens but response is SAME each time

B. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
 Body recognizes but responses IMPROVE each time
Characteristics:
1. Specificity
 Ability to recognize/distuingish
2. Memory
 Ability to remember

1st exposure
 Many days to destroy
 Bacteria damage tissue = symptoms
2nd exposure
 Rapid & effective
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  Destroyed before symptoms develop
 Person is said to be immune

I. INNATE IMMUNITY
1. PHYSICAL BARRIERS
 Prevent pathogens from entering
a. Skin/mucous membrane
b. Saliva, tears, urine
2. CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
 Molecules responsible for innate immunity
 Lysozyme in tears & saliva – kills bacteria
 Mucus – prevents entry
 Histamine, Prostaglandins, leukotriene – increase vasodilation, increase permeability
 Complement
- 20+ proteins
- Blood: inactive
- Active: combining with foreign substance
- Activates other complement
- Increase inflammation, phagocytosis & lyse
 Interferons
- Protection against VIRAL INFECTION
- Do not protect cell that produce them; neighboring cells
- NK cells & immune cells
VIRUS -> cell -> infected cell: produce viral proteins or neurons

3. WHITE BLOOD CELLS

 Most important cellular components of immunity
 RBM & lymphatic tissue -> blood
 Chemotaxis – movement of WBC towards the chemicals

a. Phagocytic
Phagocytes – ingestion/destruction of particles by cells
 Neutrophils
- Small; 1st to enter infected tissues
- Release chem.signals by activating other immune cells
- Often die after phagocytosis
PUS – accumulation of fluid, dead neutrophils
 Macrophages
- last cells to enter
- monocytes leave blood -> tissues = enlarge
- form mono nuclear phagocytic system (phagocytes that are unlobed nucleus
- clean dead neutrophils
- also found in UNINFECTED TISSUE
- can ingets more larger than neutrophils
- protect lymph & blood
a. dust cells – lungs
b. kupffer cell – liver
c. microglia - CNS
b. Cells of inflammation
 Basophils
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 - RBM, MOTILE
 Mast
- RBM, NON MOTILE
- Where pathogens may enter
 Eosinophils
- Allergies & asthma

c. Natural killers
- 15% lymphocyte
- Recognize classes of cells in GENERAL
- DO NOT EXHIBIT MEMORY RESPONSE
- Innate immunity
- Releasing chemicals

4. INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
a. Local inflammation
- SPECIFIC AREA
- Symptoms: redness, heat, swelling, pain = increase blood flow & vascular
permeability can lead to LOSS OF FXN
b. Systemic inflammation
- GENERALLY distributed
- Symptoms: local inflammation plus 3:
1. RBM produces NEUTROPHILS = phagocytosis
2. PYROGEN – fever production= inhibits microrg growth; phagocytosis
3. Increase VASCULAR PERMEABILITY – DECREASE BLOOD VOLUME

II. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

A. ANTIGENS
 Stimulates adaptive responses
2 GROUPS:
1. Foreign antigens
 outside the body
 allergic reaction – foreign antigens that produce an overreaction of I.S.
 rejection transplant
2. Self-antigens
 Produced by body – increase I.S.
 Benefitial & harmful
 Auto immune disease – self antigens stimulates unwanted destruction (rheuma)

2 GROUPS OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

1. ANTIBODY MEDIATED
 Involves in B CELLS & ANTIBODIES found in plasma
 Effective against EXTRACELLULAR ANTIGENS
 ALLERGIC reactions
 B cells -> Plasma cells -> antibodies
2. CELL-MEDIATED
 Involves T CELLS
Subpopulation:

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 a. Cytotoxic T cells – produce effects of CELL-MEDIATED
b. Helper T cells – promote/inhibit activities of ANTIBODY-MEDIATED& CELL MEDIATED

B. ANTIBODIES:
 Y-SHAPED, 4 polypeptide chains
 2 identical heavy, 2 light
 Gamma globulins – in gamma globulin part
 Immuno globulins – globulin involve in immunity

 Variable region:
 end of each arm
 part that combines with antigens
 only particular antigens; lock & key
 Constant region:
 Rest of the antibody
 Can activate complement
 Can attach the antibody to cells

EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES
1. DIRECT – antigens -> antibodies
2. INDIRECT – variable region + antigen = constant region activates chemical response,
attracts WBC, lyse

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
1. PRIMARY RESPONSE
 1st exposure of B cells to antigen
 3-14 days
 With symptoms
 Antigen -> Bcell (stim.T cells)
 B – cell -> plasma (antibodies) & Memory B cell( resp.for 2nd response)

2. SECONDARY RESPONSE/MEMORY RESPONSE

 I.S exposed to an antigen with 1st response
 Antigen- stim.memory B cells -> plasma cells -> antibodies
a. Lesser time
b. Increase number of cells and antibodies
 No symptoms

ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
 ACTIVE – OWN’S IMMUNE SYSTEM
 PASSIVE - transferred to NON IMMUNE
 NATURAL – not deliberate, contact with ANTIGEN
 ARTIFICIAL – DELIBERATE; introduction of ANTIBODY & ANTIGEN

1) Active Natural
- Natural exposure
- Increase immune system

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 - Not aware/deliberate
2) Active Artificial
- Deliberate – increase I.S
- Preferred method
 VACCINATION
3) PASSIVE NATURAL
- From mother to child
- Transfer antibodies to another
4) PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL
- Available against microorganism, venoms, rabies/disease

A. INNATE IMMUNITY
1. PHYSICAL BARRIERS
2. CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
 Complement
 Interferons
3. WHITE BLOOD CELLS
d. Phagocytic
 Neutrophils
 Macrophages
e. Cells of inflammation
 Basophils
 Mast
 Eosinophils
f. Natural killers
4. INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
c. Local inflammation
d. Systemic inflammation

B. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
1. ANTIBODY MEDIATED
2. CELL-MEDIATED

INTERSTITIAL FLUID

- Fluid found in the spaces around cells. It comes from substances that leak out of blood
capillaries (the smallest type of blood vessel). It helps bring oxygen and nutrients to cells and to
remove waste products from them. As new interstitial fluid is made, it replaces older fluid, which
drains towards lymph vessels. When it enters the lymph vessels, it is called lymph. Also called
tissue fluid.

LACTEALS

- Are special lymphatic vessels whose role is to absorb fats and transports them from the digestive
tract to the blood
- Lymph in the lacteals look milky because of the – fat content; CHYLE

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 LYMPHATIC VESSELS
- Originates as blind-end tubes that begins in the spaces between cells I most parts of the body

 Lymphatic Capillaries
- Tubes, which are closed at one end, occurs singly or in extensive plexuses
- Much larger and more permeable than blood capillaries

 Lymphatics
- Lymphatic capillaries will eventually unite to form larger lymph vessels
- Resemble veins in structure but have thinner walls and more valves

1. Lymphatics of the Skin

- Travel in loose subcutaneous connective tissue (follow the route of veins)
2. Lymphatics of the Viscera
- Follows the route of arteries and form plexuses around arteries
3. Lymphatics of the Body
- Converge into one of the two main channels
- Thoracic Duct or Left Lymphatic Duct ( the main collecting channel) & Right Lymphatic Duct

 LYMPH NODES | LYMPH GLANDS

- Oval to bean-shaped structures found along the length of lymphatics
- 1 – 25mm in length
- The lymph nodules surrounds a germinal center which produces lymphocytes.
- THE FRAME WORK OF A LYMPH NODE IS MADE UP OF THE: Capsule, Trabeculae, and Hilum

3 Regions of aggregations of nodes

1. Groin
2. Armpits
3. Neck

 Hilum
- Slight depression on one side of lymph node where efferent lymphatic vessels;

 Efferent Lymphatic Vessels

- From the hilum E.L.V leave and a nodal artery enters and a nodal vein leaves the node
- Will unite to form lymphatic trunks

 Trabeculae
- Capsular extensions divide the lymph node internally into a series of compartments that contain
lymphatic sinuses and tissues

 Afferent Lymphatic Vessels

- Lymphatic vessels that enter the lymph node at various sites

 Corticol | Lymphatic Nodules

- The lymphatic tissue of the node consists of different kinds of lymphocytes and other cells that make
up dense aggregations of tissue
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 LYMPH CIRCULATION
- Circulation of lymph through the various lymphatic vessels is maintained by normal skeletal muscle
contractions
- Respiratory or Breathing Movements – cause pressure changes in thorax
- Smooth Muscle Contraction – in the lymphatic vessel also pushes lymph along

 LYMPH
- Primarily water;
- Also contains plasma solutes such as; ions, gases, nutrients, and some proteins and substances from
tissue cells such as hormones, enzymes, and waste products

1. Plasma of blood is filtered by the blood capillaries

2. It will pass into the interstitial spaces between tissue cells – the fluid will now be called INTERSTITIAL
FLUID
3. The lymph is drained by the LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES and the LYMPHATIC PLEXUSES
4. Fluid is then passed to the LYMPHATIC VESSELS (have on-way valves)
5. The lymphatics heads towards the LYMPH NODES; afferent vessels penetrate the capsules at various
positions on the node;
6. The lymph passes through the sinuses of the nodes
- In the node, antigenic microorganisms, foreign substances, or cancer cells stimulate lymphocytes to
divide, and the immune response is activated

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  PRINCIPAL LYMPHATIC TRUNKS OF THE BODY

 Lumbar Trunk
- Drains lymph from the lower extremities, the walls of viscera of the pelvis, kidneys, and adrenal
glands, and most of the abdominal wall

 Intestinal Trunk
- Drains lymph from the stomach, intestines, pancreas, spleen, and the surface of the liver

 Bronchomediastinal Trunk
- Drains the thorax, lungs, heart, diaphragm, and the rest of the liver

 Intercostal Trunk
- Helps drain lymph from portions of the thorax

 Subclavian Trunk
- Drains the upper extremities; arms, hands, and fingers

 Jugular Trunk
- Drains the head and neck

2 MAIN CHANNELS for which the principal trunks pass their lymph

1. Thoracic Duct | Left Lymphatic Duct

- Main collecting duct of the system
2. Right Lymphatic Duct

IMMUNITY

- The ability of the body to resist infection from disease-causing microorganisms or Pathogens.

 B Lymphocytes
- are cells that produce antibodies, and they provide humoral immunity.
 T Lymphocytes
- are responsible for providing cellular immunity.

ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES

 Antigens
- Are foreign proteins that gain access to our bodies via cuts, and scrapes through the other system.
- Antigens cause the immune system to produce Immunoglobulin.

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 o IgG – it attacks viruses, bacteria, and toxins. It also activates complement, a set of enzymes
that attacks foreign antigents.

o IgA - found in exocrine gland secretions, nasal fluid, tears, gastric and intestinal juices, bile,
breast milk, and urine.

o IgM – develops in blood plasma as a response to bacteria in food.

o IgD – Important in B Cell activation.

o IgE – associated with allergic reactions, attacking allergy-causing antigents.

 Active Immunity
- When B lymphocytes come in contact with antigens and produce antibodies.

 Passive Immunity
- Conferred naturally from the mother to the fetus through the placenta for several months after birth.

 CELLS OF THE IMMUNE RESPONSE AND OTHER DEFENSES

 B – CELLS
- are lymphocytes found in the lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphoid tissues where they replicate
induced by antigen-binding activities
- their clones or progeny form plasma cells and memory cells.

 PLASMA CELLS
- are formed by replicating B Cells that enters tissue and produce huge number of antibody or
immunoglobulin.

 HELPER T – CELLS
- binds with specific antigens presented by macrophages
- they stimulate the production of killer T cells and more B cells to fight the invading of pathogens
- release lymphokines (chemicals released by synthesized T lymphocytes)

 KILLER T – CELLS
- Kills the virus invaded body cells and cancerous body cells
- Involved in graft rejection

 SUPPRESSOR T – CELLS
- Slow down the activities of B and T Cells once the infection is controlled

 MEMORY CELLS
- Descendent of activated T and B Cells produced during an initial immune response
- Exists in body for years, enabling it to respond quickly to any future infection by the pathogens

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  MACROPHAGES
- Engulf and digest antigens

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