Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

TRANSISTOR
 Explain construction of transistor
There are two types of transistor

1. NPN Transistor
2. PNP Transistor

1. NPN Transistor
 Transistor has three layers named as NPN
 When the P- region is sandwiched between two N-regions, then the transistor is known as N-P-N
transistor.
 There are three terminal named as a Base, Emitter and collector.

 Also symbol is shown in a diagram

2. PNP transistor
 This transistor has three layer named as PNP
 When the N- region is sandwiched between two P-region, then the transistor is known as P-N-P
transistor.
 There are three terminal named as a Base, Emitter and collector.

 Also symbol is shown in a diagram

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

Emitter
 The region situated in one side of transistor, which supplies charge carriers to the other two
regions.
 The emitter region is a heavily doped region

Base
 It is the middle region that forms two P-N junctions in the transistor.
 The base of transistor is thin and lightly doped region.

Collector
 It is a region situated in the other side of transistor, which collect the charge carriers.
 The collector of a transistor is always larger than the emitter and base if transistor.
 The doping level of the collector is intermediate between the heavy doping of emitter and the
light doping of the base.

 Biasing of transistor
1. Forward/Active – In this mode, the emitter-base junction of a transistor is forward biased and the
collector base junction is reverse bias is shown in figure. In a forward biasing the negative terminal of a
battery is connected to N-side (Emitter) and positive terminal to P-side (Base).

2. Saturation- In this mode, both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions of a transistors are
forward-biased as shown in figure. In this mode transistor has a very large current. The transistor
operated in this mode as a closed switch.

3. Cut off mode- In this mode, both emitter-base and collector-base junction of a transistor are reverse
biased shown in figure. In this mode, the transistor has practically zero current. The transistor operated
in this mode as an open switch.

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 Explain working of N-P-N transistor

1. NPN transistor is in forward bias. i.e. the base emitter of a transistor is forward biased and collector base
junction is reverse biased. Is shown in figure.
2. The forward bias on the emitter-base junction causes the free electrons in the N-type emitter to flow
towards the bas region. This constitutes the emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ).
3. Therefore, electrons, after reaching the base region tends to combine with the holes. They constitute the
base current (𝐼𝐵 ).
4. The free electrons of N-region are not combine with the P-region holes because of the lightly doped and
small width of P-region.
5. Only 2 to 5 % electrons combine with the hole,
6. Remaining 95 to 98 % of electrons are diffused in the N- region (collector). They constitute the collector
current (𝐼𝐶 ).

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 Explain working on P-N-P transistor

1. PNP transistor is in forward bias. i.e. the base emitter of a transistor is forward biased and collector base
junction is reverse biased. Is shown in figure.
2. The forward bias on the emitter-base junction causes the holes in the N-type emitter to flow towards the
bas region. This constitutes the emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ).
3. Therefore, holes, after reaching the base region tends to combine with the electrons. They constitute the
base current (𝐼𝐵 ).
4. The holes of P-region are not combine with the N-region electrons because of the lightly doped and
small width of N-region.
5. Only 2 to 5 % electrons combine with the electrons,
6. Remaining 95 to 98 % of electrons are diffused in the P- region (collector). They constitute the collector
current (𝐼𝐶 ).

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 Explain Transistor configuration.

1. Common Base configuration
2. Common Emitter configuration
3. Common Collector configuration

1.Common Base configuration

Diagram

1. Common bas D.C current gain

D.C current gain is defined as the ratio of Transistor output collector current to the Transistor
input emitter current.
It is denoted by ‘α’

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑐)

𝛼=
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝐸)
𝐼𝐶
𝛼𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐸
 In Transistor the collector current is always less then emitter current.
 Therefor current gain of common base configuration is always less than unity.
 The value of D.C current gain is closer to unity by making the width and the doping level of base
region as small as possible.
 This causes the majority of electrons in the NPN transistor to reach the collector. Hence the
collector current is higher.
 The actual value of a ranges from 0.95 to 0.98 %
We will find the collector current

𝐼𝑐 = 𝛼. 𝐼𝐸

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

We also know that the emitter current

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝐼𝐶
Put the value of 𝐼𝐶 in above equation

𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼𝐸 − 𝛼. 𝐼𝐸

𝐼𝐵 = (1 − 𝛼)𝐼𝐸

2. Common base A.C current gain

It is defined as the ratio of small change in collector current (∆𝑰𝑪 ) to a small change in emitter
current for constant collector to base (∆𝐼𝐵 ) voltage.

∆𝐼𝐶
𝛼𝑎𝑐 =
∆𝐼𝐸
Were, ∆𝐼𝐶 = change in collector current

∆𝐼𝐸 = change in emitter current

Now,
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵
∆𝐼𝐸 = ∆𝐼𝐶 + ∆𝐼𝐵

Dividing by ∆𝐼𝐸 on both side

∆𝐼𝐸 ∆𝐼 ∆𝐼
= ∆𝐼𝐶 + ∆𝐼𝐵
∆𝐼𝐸 𝐸 𝐸

∆𝐼
1 = 𝛼𝑎𝑐 + ∆𝐼𝐵
𝐸

∆𝐼𝐵
𝛼𝑎𝑐 = 1 −
∆𝐼𝐸
 It is clearly shows that the value of current gain is less than unity.(𝜶𝒂𝒄 < 𝟏)
 The value of αac approaches to unity if the value of base current (𝐼𝐵 ). reduce to zero.
 This can be achieved by doping the base lightly and making very thin.
 The practical value of 𝛼ac in commercial transistor is 0.95 to 0.99
 It due to the fact that the output resistance of a common base transistor is much higher than the
input resistance.

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

2. Common emitter configuration

Diagram

1. Common emitter D.C current gain.

Common emitter D.C current gain is defined as the ratio of Transistor output collector current
(𝑰𝑪 ) to the Transistor input base current (𝑰𝑩 ) .

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑐)

𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝑒)

𝐼𝐶
𝛽𝑑𝑐 =
𝐼𝐵

 We know that collector current of a transistor is much larger than the base current.
 Therefore, the value of β is much greater than the unity. (𝜷𝒂𝒄 > 𝟏)
 Sometimes 𝛽𝑑𝑐 of transistor is also known as large signal common emitter current gain.

2. Common emitter A.C current gain

It is defined as the ratio of small change in collector current (∆𝑰𝑪 ) to the small change in base
current (∆𝑰𝑩 ) for a constant collector to emitter voltage (𝑉𝐸𝐵 ).

It is denoted by 𝛽𝑎𝑐

∆𝐼𝑐
𝛽𝑎𝑐 =
∆𝐼𝐵

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 Explain Relation between current gain α and β.

We know that emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ) of transistor is the sum of its base current (𝐼𝐵 ) and collector current
(𝐼𝐶 ).

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

Dividing the above equation on both side by 𝐼𝑐

𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐶
= +
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵
= +1
𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶

𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶
Since = 𝛼 and = 𝛽
𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵

1 1
Therefore, = +1
𝛼 𝛽

1 𝛽+1
=
𝛼 𝛽

𝛽
𝛼=
𝛽+1

Above equation may be written as

𝛼(𝛽 + 1) = 𝛽

𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 = 𝛽

𝛼 = 𝛽 − 𝛼𝛽

𝛼 = (1 −α) β
𝛼
𝛽=
1−𝛼

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

3. Common collector configuration

Diagram

It is defined as the ratio of change in emitter current (∆𝑰𝑬 ) to the change in base current ∆𝑰𝑩

It is denoted by 𝛾

∆𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
∆𝐼𝐵

 Explain Relation between current gain 𝜶 and 𝜸.

∆𝐼𝐸
𝛾= ………………………….. (1)
∆𝐼𝐵

∆𝐼𝐶
𝛼=
∆𝐼𝐸

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶

∆𝐼𝐸 = ∆𝐼𝐵 + ∆𝐼𝐶

∆𝐼𝐵 = ∆𝐼𝐸 − ∆𝐼𝐶

Substituting the value if IB in equation (1), we get
∆𝐼𝐸
𝛾=
∆𝐼𝐸 −∆𝐼𝐶

Dividing the above equation by 𝐼𝐸

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

1
𝛾= ∆𝐼
1− 𝐶
∆𝐼𝐸

1
𝛾= ……………………….. (2)
1−𝛼

𝛽
Put the value of 𝛼 = in equation 2 we get
𝛽+1

1
𝛾= 𝛽
1−
𝛽+1

𝛾 = 𝛽+1

 Transistor characteristic
 Explain characteristic of a transistor in a common base configuration
There are two type of characteristic

1. Input characteristic
2. Output characteristic

Input characteristic
 Input characteristic gives the relation between emitter current and (𝐼𝐸 ) and the emitter to base
voltage (𝑉𝐸𝐵 )

Circuit diagram

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

Characteristic
 Input characteristic gives the relation between emitter current and (𝐼𝐸 ) and the emitter to base
voltage (𝑉𝐸𝐵 ). Is shown in a diagram.

 (𝑉𝐸𝐵 ) on X- axis and (𝐼𝐸 ) on Y- axis.

 First of all, adjust the collector base voltage at 1v
 Then increase the emitter to base voltage in small suitable step (i.e. 1v) and note down the
emitter current
 There exists a threshold voltage also called offset voltage, cut in voltage or knee voltage as
indicated by region OA.
 The value of knee voltage is 0.5 V for silicon and 0.1 V for germanium.
 Beyond point A, for a fixed collector to base voltage(𝑉𝐶𝐵 ), the emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ) increase
rapidly with small increase in emitter to base voltage (𝑉𝐸𝐵 ).
 It means that input resistance (𝑅𝑖 ) of transistor in common base configuration is very small.
∆𝑉𝐸𝐵
𝑅𝑖 =
∆𝐼𝐸

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

Output characteristic
 Collector to base voltage on X-axis (𝑉𝐶𝐵 ) and collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) on Y-axis.

 First of all, adjust the emitter to base voltage (𝑉𝐸𝐵 ) to get suitable value of emitter current(𝐼𝐸 ).
 Keeping the emitter current constant and increase the collector to base voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐵 ) from zero
in a number of suitable step and record the corresponding value of collector current (𝐼𝐶 )
 The divided into three important regions namely saturation region, active region and cut off
region.
 The saturation region is the region to the left of the vertical dashed line.it mat be noted that in
this region, collector to base voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐵 ) is negative for NPN transistor.
 It means that the collector base junction of a transistor is also forward bias in the saturation
region.
 In this region small change in (𝑉𝐶𝐵 ) results in a large value of current.
 The active region is the region between the vertical dashed line and the horizontal axis.
 The characteristic mat be used to find the value of common base transistor a.c output resistance.
∆𝑉𝐶𝐵
𝑅𝑂 =
∆𝐼𝐶

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 Explain characteristic of a transistor in a common Emitter configuration

Circuit diagram

Input characteristic
 Increase base to emitter voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) in small suitable step and record the value of base current
 Graph shows the relation between (𝑉𝐵𝐸 ) which on X-axis and base current (𝐼𝐵 ) which on Y-
axis.

 There exists a threshold voltage or knee voltage below which the base current is very small. The
value of knee voltage is 0.5 V and 0.1 V for germanium.
 After the knee voltage the base current (𝐼𝐵 ) increase with the increase in base to emitter voltage
for a constant collector to emitter voltage.
 it means that input characteristic of a resistance in common emitter configuration is higher as
compared to the common base configuration.
 The input characteristic may be used to find out the value of common emitter transistor a.c input
resistance.
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝑖 =
∆𝐼𝐵

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

Output characteristic
 Adjust the base current (𝐼𝐵 ) to 40 µA value.
 Then increase the collector to emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) in a number of step and record the
corresponding values of collector current (𝐼𝐶 )

 Graph shows the relation between collector to emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) which on X-axis and
collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) on Y-axis.
 The output characteristic divided in to three regions namely saturation region, active region and
cut off region.
 The saturation and cut off regions are shown by the shaded areas.
 While the active region is the region between the saturation and cut off regions.
 The collector to emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) is increased above zero, the collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) increase
rapidly to a saturation value.
 When the collector to emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) is increased further the collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) slightly
increases.
 When the base current is zero, a small collector current exists. This is called leakage current.
 The output characteristic may be used to find out the common emitter transistor a.c output
resistance.
∆𝑉𝐶𝐸
𝑅𝑂 =
∆𝐼𝐶

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 What is D.C load line?

 Consider a common emitter NPN transistor circuit is shown in diagram

 Where no signal is applied.

 The value of collector emitter voltage 𝑉𝐶𝐸 at any time is given by

𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶

 As 𝑉𝐶𝐶 and 𝑅𝐶 are fixed value

 Therefore, it is a first degree equation can be represented by straight line on the output
characteristic.
 This straight line (A & B) is known as D.C load line.
 What is operating point?
 The zero signal value of 𝐼𝐶 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 are known as the operating point.
 It is also called Quiescent (silent) or Q – point. Because it is the point on 𝐼𝐶 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸 when
transistor in the absence signal
 It is shown in below diagram.

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 Explain transistor as a switch

 Transistor has two switching state
1. OFF state
2. ON state

1. OFF state
 In OFF state transistor operate in cut off region
 The diagram for the OFF state which shown below.

 When the input of transistor is zero or negative, the transistor is in OFF condition.
 In this condition, IB = 0 and collector current is equal to the collector leakage current.
2. ON state
 In ON state transistor operate in saturation region.
 The diagram for the ON state which shown below.

 When the input voltage mad positive that saturation collector current flows, the transistor is said
to be ON condition.

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Subject Name: Fundamental of Electrical & Electronics Unit No: 3 Subject Code: 4300018

 Testing of transistor
 There are three terminals is Base, Emitter and collector.
 There are three pair of terminal: B-E, B-C and C-E.
 To test the transistor, each pair of the terminal should be tested in forward bias and reverse
biased.
 It means there are six test to be done to the transistor.
 The good transistor gives following result.
1. Emitter-Base (E-B)-junction should behave as a diode and conduct only in one way.
2. Collector-Base (C-B)- junction should behave as a diode and conduct only in one way.
3. Collector- Emitter (C-E)- should not conduct either way.

 Short question
1. Advantages of transistor
 Very small size and weight.
 Low operating voltage.
 Low cost.
 Low power consumption.
 Long life.
2. Disadvantage of transistor
 Lower temperature rating.
 Limited low voltage rating.
 Limited to low frequency operation.
 More sensitive.
3. Application of transistor.
 As a linear amplifier.
 As an electronic switch.

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