Reproduction

Reproduction - the process by which new offspring are produced.

Types: Asexual & Sexual

Differences between the two types:

Asexual

- 1 parent
- 1 gamete or sex cell
- No fusion/fertilization occurs
- Cells divide by mitosis
- Identical offspring produced (clones)

Sexual

- 2 parents
- 2 gametes (1 from each parent)
- Fusion/fertilization occurs
- Cells divide by meiosis
- Variety in offspring

Advantages & Disadvantages of Asexual reproduction:

(NB. Advantages of asexual reproduction are disadvantages of sexual reproduction)

Advantages:
- No time/energy is wasted searching for a mate
- Desirable traits can be conserved since identical offspring are produced (good quality
parents = good quality offspring)
- Offspring are produced quickly
- Large numbers of offspring are produced at once

Disadvantages:
- Offspring cannot adapt to changes (no variation) in the environment and therefore are
not resistant to poor conditions
- Lack of diversity can cause an entire species to be wiped out by a disease
- Bad quality parents = bad quality offspring
- Overcrowding may lead to competition causing death of some organisms

Advantages & Disadvantages of Sexual reproduction:

Advantages:
 - Bad quality parents = good quality offspring since meiosis ensures variation (if one
parent has a disease or unfavourable trait, there is a lesser chance that it would be
passed onto the offspring)
- Variation in offspring can result in evolution/changes
- Foetus/offspring are protected in the womb

Disadvantages:
- Time & energy is wasted searching for a mate
- Good quality parents can = poor quality offspring (due to random fertilization or
mutations)
- Small numbers of offspring produced at once
- Offspring take a long time to reproduce.

Female Reproductive system

Front View

Cervix
(correct
Position)

Cilia lining the fallopian tube (sweep eggs from the ovary to the uterus)

Functions/Structure:

Oviducts/Fallopian Tubes: narrow tubes with muscular walls lined with cilia that transport
ova from the ovary to the uterus (NOTE: the cilia help move the ova). They also contract by
peristalsis, that also helps. Sperm must swim against the flow created by the cilia to reach the
ova (eggs). This is the site of fertilization.

Ovary: oval shaped; produces eggs and secretes the female sex hormones, oestrogen and
progesterone.

Uterus/womb: pear-shaped; where the foetus grows and develops during pregnancy. It
contains a lining called the endometrium where fertilized ova are implanted. Its walls are
thick and muscular. It stretches during pregnancy to accommodate the developing foetus, and
contracts during birth.

Cervix: ring of muscle at the end of the uterus (around the neck of the uterus) near the vagina
(opens into the vagina). Keeps the neck closed during pregnancy until birth. It also allows
sperm to enter after intercourse by producing a watery mucus to help sperm swim to the
uterus.

Vagina: thin-walled, muscular passage from the uterus to the outside. Receives the penis and
where sperm is deposited intercourse. It stretches to let the baby out during birth.

Side View

oviduct/fallopian
tube

bladder

urethra
Male reproductive system

Please
learn the
functions
of the parts

Functions/Structure:
Vas deferens/Sperm duct: muscular tube that links the testis to the urethra
Seminal vesicle:
Urethra:
Penis:
Epididymis:
Testes (plural) testis (singular):
Scrotum:
Prostate gland:
Cowper’s gland (not on diagram):

You should have examined the structures of both male and female reproductive systems by
now.

Orifices/openings
You may have noticed that females have 3 openings/orifices in close proximity with each
other; the urethra, vagina and anus. This increases a female’s chance of contracting
infections. The urethra, which is shorter than that of the male, is responsible for releasing
urine only. The short urethra in females increases their chance of developing urinary tract
infections (UTI). Wearing cotton underwear/undergarments/tights, changing sanitary napkins,
panty shields and damp undergarments regularly, drinking lots of water and consuming
cranberry juice and yoghurt are a few ways in which females can care for and prevent
infections of the urinary tract and vagina.

Males have a pair of testes which descend out of the body and into the scrotum shortly before
birth since sperm cannot grow and develop at body temperature i.e., they need a cooler
environment to do so. They also have a long urethra which takes both sperm and urine out of
the body. The urethra is well away from the second opening, the anus.

Semen and sperm are not the same. Semen is made up of secretions + sperm.
This secretion comprises of fluid from the Prostate gland, Cowper’s gland and seminal
vesicles, hence the reason the vas deferens, which carries sperm, passes near these glands to
collect fluid. This fluid provides sperm with nutrients necessary for their survival and the
liquid medium for swimming.

Please read up on the benefits of circumcision in males.

Route of gametes (ova)

ovary 🡪 oviduct 🡪 uterus 🡪 vagina

(site of production) (site of fertilization) (site of implantation) (degeneration)
(if no fertilization)

Route of gametes (spermatozoa)

testes 🡪 epididymis 🡪 vas deferens 🡪 urethra

Gametes

Ova vs. Spermatozoa

- live for 12-24 hrs. after release - live for up to 5 days if released in vagina
- cilia in oviduct aids movement - tail aids movement
- 1 is usually produced per month - millions produced per second
- food reserves food in yolk - no food reserves

Adaptations of gametes for their function:

Sperm
- Tail/flagellum aids in swiftly propelling sperm towards ovum
- acrosome which contains digestive enzymes for penetrating jelly layer of ovum
- mitochondria in middle piece provides sufficient energy for swift movement of sperm
- nucleus contains 23 chromosomes for combining with an ovum

Ovum
- jelly layer which changes its concentration to prevent sperm more than 1 sperm from
fusing
 - nucleus which contains 23 chromosomes for combining with sperm

Fertilization

Please take a look at this video on fertilization.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5OvgQW6FG4

Menstrual cycle

Menstrual cycle - the hormonal process a woman’s body goes through each month to prepare
for a possible pregnancy.

Menstruation – shedding of the uterus lining if no fertilization occurs.

The purpose of the menstrual cycle is to ensure fertilization. Every month the female body
prepares for fertilization. Every month YOUR bodies prepare for fertilization. Try not to give
in to your body’s needs. ☺ If you do, this means you are ready for pregnancy.

Please recap the following functions of these menstrual hormones.

Hormone Produced Role

FSH (follicle
Pituitary Causes an egg to mature in an ovary. Stimulates the ovaries
stimulating
gland to release oestrogen
hormone)

Stops FSH being produced (so that only one egg matures in a
Oestrogen Ovaries cycle). Repairs, thickens and maintains the uterus lining.
Stimulates the pituitary gland to release LH.
 Hormone Produced Role

LH (luteinising Pituitary
Triggers ovulation (the release of a mature egg)
hormone) gland

Maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part of the
Progesterone Ovaries
menstrual cycle and during pregnancy.

The following chart (reading from left to right) depicts:

i. The development of an ovum/egg (ovarian follicle) in the ovaries from a

primary follicle i.e. young egg to a Graafian follicle i.e. mature egg.
ii. The increase and decrease in hormone levels as the ovum develops.
iii. The shedding and building up of the uterus lining as it prepares for the
implantation of
a fertilized ovum.

*Ovulation* (day 14) – is the period marked by the release of a Graafian follicle from the
ovary. Based on the hormone table above, an increase in the hormone oestrogen causes a
spike or surge in the hormone LH which triggers ovulation.

Take a look at both of the following videos to aid with understanding menstruation.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vl2wRbO8LZU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ayzN5f3qN8g
If fertilization occurs

- corpus luteum secretes progesterone until placenta secretes its own

- hormone levels remain high to maintain the uterus lining
- no menstruation occurs / uterine lining remains built up

If no fertilization occurs

- corpus luteum degenerates

- hormone levels decrease
- menstruation (shedding of uterine lining) occurs

This chart gives a more detailed explanation of the events happening between day 1 and 28.

Contraception

4 Contraceptive methods: Natural, Barrier, Hormonal, Surgical

Natural: Rhythm, Withdrawal, ABSTINENCE

Barrier: Condoms, IUD-intra uterine device, diaphragm

Hormonal: IUD, Contraceptive pill, patch

Surgical: Vasectomy, Tubal ligation

Method How the method works One advantage One disadvantage

Any one of the following:
Any one of the following:
- Ceases to be effective if
It prevents ovulation and
one pill is missed. - May
The contraceptive makes the cervical mucus - Almost totally reliable if taken daily. -
cause side effects in some
pill thicker and more difficult for Menstruation is lighter, shorter and
women,
sperm to swim through.
less painful.
especially those who
smoke.
Any one of the following:

● - Totally reliable.

● - No need to think further about

Prevents sperm leaving the
Surgical sterilisation male body or ova passing - Usually irreversible.
down the oviducts. contraception.

● - No artificial device needs to be used

or pills taken.
Any one of the following:

● - Unreliable
since the time
of ovulation
can vary.

Intercourse is restricted to - No artificial device needs to be used or pills ● - Restricts the

The rhythm method times when ova should be taken, therefore, it is acceptable to all religious time when
absent from the oviducts. groups. intercourse can
occur.
● - Unsuitable
for women
with an
irregular
menstrual
cycle.
The condom It acts as a barrier to prevent Any one of the following: Any one of the following:
sperm entering the female
body.
● - Very reliable if used correctly. ● - May reduce
sensitivity so
 interferes with
enjoyment.
● - Easy to use. ● - Condoms
can tear
● - Readily available.
allowing sperm
● - Protects against sexually transmitted to enter the
vagina.

infections. ● - Latex may

cause an
allergic
reaction.

Surgical sterilization includes:

1. Tubal ligation – tying of tubes in females
2. Vasectomy – tying of tubes in males