→

S5
 558$
SECTION # l TEMPERATURE :

* Temperature : Measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a

body .
NOTE: K C- =
.
ZKT
SI .
units Kelvin
:
K Ea TI
-

other units OC :
or F

Physical significance scalar :

* Different
Types of Thermometers :

i
.
Liquid in
glass thermometer
2
. Expansion of a
gas
resistance of
3
.
Change in a wire
-

4. Change in E.m -
f at junction of 2 different metals
Gasunction
.
to + junction
* Limitations of Liquid in Glass Thermometers:

i
.
Difficult to ensure that all liquid is at the same temperature
conducted
2. Glass is a
good insulator so it takes time for heat to be
making it slow to respond to temperature
changes .

good thermometer responds quicker Such thermometers have specific heat

NOTE A : .
a lower
capacity .

Thermometer
*
Constructing a :

Tot construct thermometer a , a scale is needed and to establish a scale we need :

i
.
Thermometric Property m such a
property that varies with temperature e.g expansion of mercury resistance of
, a

wire .

2 .
Fixed Points) me g liquid in glass thermometers are calibrated in OC ,
a scale based on 2 fixed points :

1 . Upper fixed point (steam point)

2
.
Lower fixed point (melting point)
*
Measuring Lower Fixed Point :

> to → ice point

>
melting ice

:
mm
*
Measuring upper fixed Point :

①
> steam point Choo)

gaff Date flame

. . ..
. . .. .

* Formula to Find Temperature at unknown length :

TOC = LT - Lo x 100°C >NOTE : For properties that vary with temperature only .

Ltoo Lo -

* Thermistor :
&

NOTE : Digital thermometers or temperature sensors are much more sensitive than liquid in glass thermometers
because
they use a device called thermistor .

FACT: For a thermistor TT Rd :

Rlkrn

Toc
>

F. A. Q: ca) .
Assuming resistance varies linearly with temperature find ,
RT if both Ro and Rio o are
given .

T1 OC = RT -
Ro x 100 =
R too Ro -

(b)Is this answer accurate ?

Ans: No In .

reality thermistor varies non -

linearly with temperature .

NOTE: Celsius scale only works properly with

things that behave linearly .

* Absolute scale :

•
SI temperature scale → Unit K -
-

•
Absolute Zero m OK → K E = 05 -

NOTE : If Tkelvin doubles ,

K E
.
also doubles

• Tk = Tc t 273

•
Triple point of water → State of water at Tk = 273K (0°C)

ice cube taken out of freezer

N
e.g : a

u
 •
Absolute scale has 1 fixed point only i - e triple point of water = 273k

NOTE : .
Liquid in glass thermometer :

TIK = LI x 273
( 273

•
Gas thermometer (pressure variation)

TIK = Pt × 273
P273

*
Advantages of Kelvin scale:

i
.
As temperature doubles kinetic energy also doubles (Tisa ,
K E) -

variation of scale which

z
.
Single fixed point so physical property is nonlinear writ
thermodynamic means

that scale is in dependant of the property of the substance .

RIKA RIKA Celsius scale

→ assumes linear relationship .

-
actual variation

RT - - - - - - - - - -

-80,00 RT - - - - - - - - - - - - -

q
i i
!
i
TIK Toc
i 7 i 7
T T→
wrong
* SECTION # 2:THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

* Solids: "
" "

Mmm ,,

Molecules are held together by very strong forces of attraction

§
•
.

They vibrate about their fixed positions . x

*
Liquids : a

weaker
-
o
Forces b/w molecules are
-

i
. .
-
'
-
'

• Particles are able to move around . . - -

* Gases:
^

far apart
-
•
Molecules are
sufficiently .

•
Negligible forces of attraction >

NOTE : The
only time a force acts on a
gas particle is when a collision happens .

*
Melting :

solid converts to temperature

The process by which a
liquid without a
change in .

*
Boiling :

The process
by which a liquid converts to
gas without changea in temperature .

NOTE: Isak E .
of molecules Since in both state .

changes temp ,
: remains constant , this means that K - E of molecules
also remains constant (speed is constant) However separation b/w molecules is which causes P E of
.

increasing ,
.

molecules to increase and molecules start to freely

move .

FACT :P E increases alot more in

.

boiling as compared to melting This is .

bk in
boiling we have to
completely
overcome the forces of attraction .
FAQ :
what is the purpose of heat supplied during boiling?
Ans: To increase the.
separation b/w molecules to
infinity .
c '

alma arise
against atmospheric
•
To do work pressure .

* Specific Heat of Vaporization :

&

The amount of heat required to

change the state of unit mass of substance from liquid to gas at a constant

temperature .

NOTE Lv is :
required during boiling only .

Formula: Q = thLV , >

specific latent heat of vaporization

"
seat Is evtnaapssrated
NOTE : Lv = Fm > Units: J
kg
' '

* Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization:

A

e
heat v
> Variable power supply
escapades
-

J (To repeat experiment)

{ otgranpopnairtoraeutgmp
:
'

> To monitor temp :

of surroundings
ELENA Water
>

+ Top pan balance

>

•
Water is heated through heater
• water evaporates
•

Reading on top pan balance changes

m
30g (initial)
-
-

m's
20g (final)
m evaporated -10g
heat losses to the value of calculated
NOTE : There will be
surroundings so Lv will not be correct We have to account
.

for the heat losses to obtain accurate value for Heat losses cannot be eliminated but
an Lv .

they can

be accounted for .

FACT: Rate of heat lost a Temperature difference .

30°C 30°C
AC
, go,
•
£ •
250C

" I 4,

> Temp : difference T >Temp difference t

:

heat felt T -

Heat felt t

>
If temperature difference b/w apparatus and the rate of heat will remain constant hence
surroundings remain same ,
a

thermometer is added to apparatus to monitor the temperature difference to keep it constant .

*
Experiment # I :

heat
G- mlvt Hi >
energy lost to
surroundings
VEI = mLv t H

Divide
.

throughout by t
VI LV Rate of heat
tf tf
= t →

energy lost
fate Rate of
of heat mass lost
Energy
supplied
(Power)
(F- Elt) Rate of mass lost
>

' Rate of heat lost

h
→
-

VI = m Lv ,
t

Tol
tag
"e Current Beatie latent
heat of vaporization

* Experiment #2 change voltage and current

:

II m
' "
V LV th > NOTE -
-
Rate of heat lost will be same b/c we kept temp difference
: same .

NOTE when V & I are changed heat supplied heater

changed rate of lost will also
: , to is so mass
change .

FA O # I experiment done twice ?

why is this
:
-

Ans To eliminate heat losses

:

F. A Q#2 : How do
-

you ensure heat is

being supplied at a constant rate?

Ans : .
Bubbles observed are produced at a constant rate .

•
Mass of water decreases at a constant rate .

'
*
Experiment # I VI : = m Lv th

II m" LV th
'

* Experiment #2 : V

subtracting the Equations :

"
II m Lv
'

VI V -
'
-
m Lv th - h
' ' ''
Lv (m )
'
VI -
V I = -
m

' '
Lv = VI -
V I
' ' '
m -
M

* Specific Latent Heat of Fusion:

thermal energy required to change the state of a unit mass from solid to
liquid at a constant temperature .

NOTE : Required during melting only .

Formula: O = th Lf i >
specific latent heat of Fusion

"
seat Instated
NOTE : Lf = Fm > Units: J
kg
' -

* Experiment to Find Latent Heat of Fusion:

Joule • > Power supply
Meter
heat

} directly measures energy

>

mapopniatrorattesm

www.MBM.irfsnnae
"

' "

ice
> heater

0
>beaker

mmmm
NOTE : Ice is not
only melting due to heat from the heater but also due to heat absorbed from the surroundings .

Hence we take 2 sets of readings to account for ice melted due to this heat .

MASS OF ENERGY TIME

Eff'aPER
' °
WATER I INTERVAL 1 min
g

10 O
HEATER OFF 116.6 O -

> 5mins =
8.3g water collected

HEATER ON 164 7
. 18000 5 O
-

'
Mass of water collected from ice melting due to heat from surroundings only .

'
Mass of water collected from ice melting due to heat from surroundings and heater both .

since heater only turned

NOTE : was on for 5 mins ,
bring the other
reading down to 5 as well .

⑨= m tf t t I
-

H
*
Experiment # I :
0=8.3Lf t

* Experiment #2 18000=64-7 Lf : t H

subtracting the Equations :

18000 -
O = 64 7L f - -
8.3 Lf t H H -

18000 =
Lf (64-7-8.3)
18000
Lf =
(64.7 -
8.3)

"
Lf =
3205kg
FAQ# t is the experiment done twice ?
why
:

Ans To account for heat

:
gained from surroundings .

F. A O # 2
-
:
why is a
reading taken with the heater switched off ?
Ans To account melted due heat from
for ice to
surroundings
-
-
.

F. A Q#3 How do ensure ice is

being melted at constant rate?
:
a
you
-

Ans : .
Constant rate at which droplets of water are produced .

water collected at constant rate

-
is
being a .

* specific Heat capacity :

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass

by 1°C or 1K .

NOTE Unlike mlf and mlv Specific Heat temperature

:
.
capacity affects the kinetic energy of molecules since is
changing
not the state of matter (Tic a .
K E)
-

Q MCAT→ Temperature
Formula :
=
"

Lass
difference

Entergy Specific
heat
capacity

Units : C = MOTT Jlkgk OR

Jlkgc
NOTE : he is scalar so DT Thigher
= -
Tower

DTK = DTC

27°C 'S 100°C m

DT = 73°C

300K → 473K -
D-1=73K
*
Heating curve :

T OC n

specific heat capacity ( Q

-
-
m CDT)
gas
specific latent heat
of vaporization (Q=mw)
K E
-

gained
100 -

RE
liquid t gas gained

MCAT)
specific heat capacity ( Q
-
-

liquid
K E
-

gained

specific latent heat

0 of fusion ( Q Mlf)
yt / min
-
-

solid t
liquid PE
.

gained

specific heat capacity ( Q

-
-
)
m CDT

solid
-
10 -
K E
-

gained

* C- Iperiment to Find specific Heat capacity :

Resistance Liquid out

Thermometer
^
Tin Tout

rrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrr > Resistance

Thermometer
theater
{
a
treat
NOTE : since Rate of heat loss a DT b/w
liquid in , . ..
, a system
CONTINUOUS FLOW CALORIMETER and surroundings ,
when we increase V & I .

Basic Method: water heats up more ,

DT increases so rate

•
Measure initial temperature of liquid using resistance thermometer of heat loss also increases Hence we.
are

Water goes in and heats due to heater flow rate

going to adjust the mass
•

•
Measure temperature of liquid at outlet .

according to heat supplied . For e -

g
:

Q MCDT heat lost C- xp 1 305 to water 1051kg

t H'→ :
3kg →
-
- :

C-xp :L: 60J to water → 1051kg

VEI MCDT t H
6kg
-
-

' → Rate of heat lost

VI -
- M CDT th since now outflow temp will be : same in both

ptnptwutmtarssaetebw exp: DT will be same

.
so rate of heat loss

also be
'
*
Experiment # I :
VI -
- m CDT th will same .

* Experiment #2 V' I '=m" CDT th → NOTE :

:
By adjusting mass flow rate we kept outflow temp same so Tout : -
Tin will be equal in
subtracting the Equations :
both experiments .

II m CDT CDT th
' '
H
''
VI V - -
m -

I' DT)
''

( (MDT
'
VI V - = -
m

'
'

(= VI -
V I
''
m
'
DT -
M DT
 '

rate of 1500kgmin through heated by

-

F. A. o water flows tube and heater

at a O a is
dissipating 25.2W
-
-
-
a .

The inflow and outflow temperatures are 15.2°C and 1740C respectively When the
.
rate of flow of water
"
is increased to 0.2318kgmin and the rate of heating to 37.8W the inflow and
.
outflow temperatures

remain unchanged .
Find :

ca> specific heat capacity of water .

P= m CDT
'

t h
O 1500 -

C ( 17.4 15 2) h
Equation #I 25.2 = Go t
-
: -

Equation#2 :
37.8=0-231-8
Go ( (17-4
-
15 2) th
-

0.2318 O 15.

37.8 -
25.2 = Go C (17 -
4 -
15.2) -
TOC (17-4-15.2) tht X -

( 17 -
Li -
15 2) C
-

12 8 =
-
60
(O .
2318 - O 15 -
)
12 8×60 -

C = (17.4 15 2) (0.2318 O 15)

-
-
-
-

'

4200J
'

( =
kg
(b) Rate of heat loss
'
P= m CDT th

25.2 = 8 (4200)(17-4-15.2) th
h = 25.2 8 (4200747-4-15.2)
-

'
h = 2.1W OR 2.155

* Method of Mixtures Katorimetric Experiment :

&

heat losses to the

Heat lost = Heat gained (negligible surroundings)
NOTE : since we are assuming negligible heat losses to the
surroundings , our answers such as for specific heat

capacity will
always be an OVERESTIMATE .

*
Technique for solving questions Always draw such : an axis for these questions .

-110C n

gain that
TH substance lose heat Cold substances will
Hot NOTE : Hot substances
always -

Heat loss lost heat .

Ultimately both substances settle at one temperature .

Teq Equilibrium

}
y 10°C →
25°C

Heat gained f 25°C final temperature of mixture

40°C
Tc Cold substance 250C

F. A. Q : A metal of mass 0.2kg at 100°C is dropped into 0.08kg of water at 15°C contained in a calorimeter of

0.12kg and specific heat capacity 4005kg

'
K ! The final temperature reached
-

is 350C
Assuming
'

mass .

'
heat losses calculate the specific heat
-
"

negligible ,
capacity of the metal CC water .
=
42005kg K )
y, q
^ metal
a

100 Metal
O '

0.2kg
35
Equilibrium calorimeters
Water
→

15°C
'
K
- '
15°C
4005kg
-

Water + Calorimeter
'
15
-
'
42005kg
-

K
o
12kg
-

o -

08kg
NITE connected objects are
: at the same temperature .
Heat lost = Heat gained
mm CMDTm = MWCWDTW t Mc Cc DTW → NOTE : If a
question States that calorimeter has negligible C than

O - 2C (100-35)=(0.081142007135-15)+(0.12714003135-15) MCDT -
- O
for calorimeter hence it won't be

13C = 6720 t 960 included in calculations .

6720+960
( =
73
-
' - '

C =
5905kg K → OVERESTIMATE b/c we assumed negligible heat losses .

If state involved question then

NOTE :
change of is in a
,
use E- Mlf or Mlu as well .

* SECTION #3 : LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS: -

* Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics :

no net heat
< , transfer

A B c If Temp : A =
Temp :B and Temp :B Temp :C =

then temp: A Temp :C -

.

< , c ,

no net heat no net heat

transfer transfer

* First law of Thermodynamics :

(Based on law of conservation of energy)
work done
U 9 tu : Increase in internal
✓
+ = t w on
gas
energy
GOAT TO BE
ACHIEVED t
q Heat supplied
: to
system
work done
+w on
gas
:

NOTE : For ideal gas heat

an :-

U = Total K E -

U = Nc Ek >

ideal 320J of heat

FA Q An
gas is given energy However it's volume doesn't change Number of molecules
:
- .
.
,

the 1.8×102 Calculate

? Ek of the
in
gas are average gas molecules .

work done
U
qt w → NOTE
:
by gas PDV Since DV=o w=Pxo w=o5
- -
- =
.

U =q= 320J

U -
Nc Ek >

320=1-8×1029 Ek>
320
< Ek > =
78×1020

< Ek> = 1.78×10-185

*
Deciding signs of U , q& w: → o no-
-

change ,
t : increase .
-
-
- decrease

compression
* Situation # I compression :
of ideal gas at constant temperature .
dork on
gas
-
✓

U W
9 NOTE : constant temperature means K E is
-
constant Since
. for
O t
ideal also constant
-

U k E so u
an
gas = . .

NOTE don't want internal

since we
energy to change heat must be taken out since work is
:
,

wheat
being done on
gas .

Through Equation o=qtw : w= -

q
 solid
Situation # 2
Heating of with no expansion
:
* a .

U q W
NITE : DV = 0 SO W= O

t t O K -
ET

"
heat

F. A O # t :
-

By reference to work done and

healing state and explain whether internal energy increases decreases ,

or remains constant .

(a) Gas in a
toy balloon when it suddenly bursts .
a work by gas

No
change in heat (NOTE Question doesn't state
heating)
'
• -

•
Work done by gas

•
U will decrease

(b) Ice melting at constant temperature to form water that is more dense than ice - FACT:
fwater >
Tice
MX
> MI
Work done on ice Vw

v i.
•

supplied Fw to
>
Heat
system
•
U will increase .
Vi > Vw

(c)
Cylinder containing gas at constant volume in sunlight so it's temperature increases from 25°C to 30°C .

• Work done = OJ

•
Heat supplied to
system
•
U will increase

F. A. Q # 2 Use :
1st Law of thermodynamics to explain why Lv >
Lf .

increases separation
NOTE : Heat in Lv
; done aim
work
against
Ans : . In vaporization Ek is more and P C- also increases
.
more b/c molecules have to be separated to
infinity so DU is

more .

also done work is done in

• Work is
against atmospheric pressure hence greater change in volume so more

vaporization

.
Hence Lu is more than Lf .

F. A Q # 3 :
-

8
a
-
P
ooo
Ideal Gras
'
'
Vai 'm *
cyclical Process: start and end point is same

overall
> FACT:
change in
energy is Zero .

2 - o B o R
Q

171105 Pa
• , >
4 28.5

work on Heat supplied Increase in

change Gas 1J to Gas 15 internal Energy P → Q : W = PDV = 4×105×18 -
2)10-4=2405 R >P: Pot @Rt RP = O

P Q t 240 600 360

>
600+240=-3605 360+7201-1217=0
-

U=qtw=
-
- -

Q > R O +720 720 RP 360J

a > R: 0=720 t 0=7205 = -

R s P 840 +480 -
360 W q= -360-480=-8405
-

= u -