Environmental Science and Engineering Page 1 of 9

Biome

IV. LESSON PROPER

BIOMES
Biome, also called major life zone, the largest geographic biotic unit, a major community of plants
and animals with similar life forms and environmental conditions. It includes various communities and is
named for the dominant type of vegetation, such as grassland or coniferous forest. Several similar biomes
constitute a biome type—for example, the temperate deciduous forest biome type includes the deciduous
forest biomes of Asia, Europe, and North America. “Major life zone” is the European phrase for the North
American biome concept. The figure below shows the distribution of 8 biomes around the world.

LAND BIOMES
A number of climatic factors interact in the creation and maintenance of a biome. Where precipitation is
moderately abundant — 40 inches (about 1 m) or more per year — and distributed fairly evenly throughout
the year, the major determinant is temperature. It is not simply a matter of average temperature, but includes
such limiting factors as:

 whether it ever freezes;

 length of the growing season

If there is ample rainfall, we find 4 characteristic biomes as we proceed from the tropics (high
temperatures) to the extreme latitudes (low temperatures). In order, they are: tropical rain forest or jungle,
temperate deciduous forest, taiga and tundra.

1. Tropical Rain Forest

In the Western Hemisphere, the tropical rain forest reaches its fullest development in the jungles of
Central and South America.
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 The trees are very tall and of a great variety of species.
 One rarely finds two trees of the same species growing close to one another.
 The vegetation is so dense that little light reaches the forest floor.
 Most of the plants are evergreen, not deciduous.
 The branches of the trees are festooned with vines and epiphytes

The lushness of the tropical rain forest suggests a high net productivity, but this is illusory. Many of the
frequent attempts to use the tropical rain forest for conventional crops have been disappointing. Two
problems:

 The high rainfall leaches soil minerals below the reach of plant roots.
 The warmth and moisture cause rapid decay so little humus is added to the soil.

The tropical rain forest exceeds all the other biomes in the diversity of its animals as well as plants. Most
of the animals — mammals and reptiles, as well as birds and insects — live in the trees.

2. Temperate Deciduous Forest

This biome occupies the eastern half of the United States and a large portion of Europe. It is characterized
by:

 hardwood trees (e.g., beech, maple, oak, hickory) which

 are deciduous; that is, shed their leaves in the autumn.
 The number of different species is far more limited than in the jungle.
 Large stands dominated by a single species are common.
 Deer, raccoons, and salamanders are characteristic inhabitants.
 During the growing season, this biome can be quite productive in both natural and agricultural
ecosystems.

3. Taiga or Boreal Forest

The taiga is named after the biome in Russia.

 It is a land dominated by conifers, especially spruces and firs.

 It is dotted with lakes, bogs, and marshes.
 Because of the slow rate of decay, its soils store a huge amount of organic matter — the total carbon
stored is estimated to be 30–40% of the total on earth.
 It is populated by an even more limited variety of plants and vertebrates than is the temperate
deciduous forest. However, its soil teems with more nematodes than the soils of any other biome.
 In North America, the moose is such a typical member that it has led to the name: "spruce-moose"
biome.
 Before the long, snowy winter sets in, many of the mammals hibernate, and many of the birds migrate
south.
 Although the long days of summer permit plants to grow luxuriantly, net productivity is low.

4. Tundra
At extreme latitudes, the trees of the taiga become stunted by the harshness of the subarctic climate. Finally,
they disappear leaving a land of bogs and lakes.
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 The climate is so cold in winter that even the long days of summer are unable to thaw
the permafrost beneath the surface layers of soil.
 Sphagnum moss, a wide variety of lichens, and some grasses and fast-growing annuals dominate
the landscape during the short growing season.
 Caribou feed on this growth as do vast numbers of insects.
 Swarms of migrating birds, especially waterfowl, invade the tundra in the summer to raise their
young, feeding them on a large variety of aquatic invertebrates and vertebrates.
 As the brief arctic summer draws to a close, the birds fly south, and
 all but a few of the permanent residents, in one way or another, prepare themselves to spend the
winter in a dormant state.

Biomes Established By Rainfall

The other major biomes are controlled not so much by temperature but by the amount and seasonal
distribution of rainfall.

The prevailing winds in the western half of North America blow in from the Pacific laden with moisture.
Each time this air rises up from the western slopes of, successively, the Coast Ranges, the Sierras and
Cascades, and finally the Rockies, it expands and cools. Its moisture condenses to rain or snow, which
drenches the mountain slopes beneath. When the air reaches the eastern slopes, it is relatively dry, and
much less precipitation falls. How much falls and when determine whether the biome will be: temperate rain
forest, grassland, desert or chaparral.

5. Temperate Rain Forest

The temperate rain forest combines high annual rainfall with a temperate climate. The Olympic
Peninsular in North America is a good example. An annual rainfall of as much as 150 inches (381 cm)
produces a lush forest of conifers.
6. Grasslands
Grasslands are also known as prairie or plains. The annual precipitation in the grasslands averages
20 inches (~51 cm) per year. A large proportion of this falls as rain early in the growing season. This promotes
a vigorous growth of perennial grasses and herbs, but — except along river valleys — is barely adequate for
the growth of forests.

Fire is probably the factor that tips the balance from forest to grasslands. Fires — set by lightning
and by humans — regularly swept the plains in earlier times. Thanks to their underground stems and buds,
perennial grasses and herbs are not harmed by fires that destroy most shrubs and trees.

The abundance of grass for food, coupled with the lack of shelter from predators, produces similar
animal populations in grasslands throughout the world. The dominant vertebrates are swiftly-moving,
herbivorous ungulates. In North America, bison and antelope were conspicuous members of the grassland
fauna before the coming of white settlers. Now the level grasslands supply corn, wheat, and other grains,
and the hillier areas support domesticated ungulates: cattle and sheep. When cultivated carefully, the
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grassland biome is capable of high net productivity. A major reason: rainfall in this biome never leaches soil
minerals below the reach of the roots of crop plants.

6. Desert
Annual rainfall in the desert is less than 10 inches (25 cm) and, in some years, may be zero. Because of
the extreme dryness of the desert, its colonization is limited to

 plants such as cacti, sagebrush, and mesquite that have a number of adaptations that conserve
water over long periods;
 fast-growing annuals whose seeds can germinate, develop to maturity, flower, and produce a new
crop of seeds all within a few weeks following a rare, soaking rain.

Many of the animals in the desert (mammals, lizards and snakes, insects, and even some birds) are
adapted for burrowing to escape the scorching heat of the desert sun. Many of them limit their forays for food
to the night. The net productivity of the desert is low. High productivity can sometimes be achieved
with irrigation, but these gains are often only temporary. The high rates of evaporation cause minerals to
accumulate near the surface and soon their concentration may reach levels toxic to plants.

7. Chaparral

The annual rainfall in the chaparral biome may reach 20–30 inches (64–76 cm), but in contrast to
the grasslands, almost all of this falls in winter. Summers are very dry and all the plants — trees, shrubs, and
grasses — are more or less dormant then.

The chaparral is found in California. (The photo shows the chaparral-clad foothills of the Sierra
Nevada in California.) Similar biomes (with other names, such as scrub forest), are found around much of
the Mediterranean Sea and along the southern coast of Australia. The trees in the chaparral are mostly oaks,
both deciduous and evergreen. Scrub oaks and shrubs like manzanita and the California lilac (not a relative
of the eastern lilac) form dense, evergreen thickets. All of these plants are adapted to drought by such
mechanisms as waxy, waterproof coatings on their leaves. The chaparral has many plants brought to it from
similar biomes elsewhere. Vineyards, olives, and figs flourish just as they do in their native Mediterranean
biome. So, too, do eucalyptus trees transplanted from the equivalent biome in Australia.

AQUATIC BIOMES

Aquatic biomes are biomes found in water. Water covers 70 percent of Earth’s surface, so aquatic
biomes are a major component of the biosphere. However, they have less total biomass than terrestrial
biomes. Aquatic biomes can occur in either salt water or freshwater. About 98 percent of Earth’s water is
salty, and only 2 percent is fresh. The primary saltwater biome is the ocean. Major freshwater biomes include
lakes and rivers.
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Aquatic Zones
In large bodies of standing water (including the ocean and lakes), the water can be divided into zones
based on the amount of sunlight it receives. There is enough sunlight for photosynthesis only in - at most -
the top 200 meters of water. Water down to this depth is called the photic zone. Deeper water, where too
little sunlight penetrates for photosynthesis, is called the aphotic zone.

Life in a lake or the ocean is generally divided into zones. The zones correlate mainly with the amount
of sunlight and nutrients available to producers. Figure 1 shows ocean zones. Lakes have similar zones.
• The littoral zone is the shallow water near the shore. In the ocean, the littoral zone is also called the
intertidal zone.
• The pelagic zone is the main body of open water farther out from shore. It is divided into additional zones
based on water depth. In the ocean, the part of the pelagic zone over the continental shelf is called the neritic
zone, and the rest of the pelagic zone is called the oceanic zone.
• The benthic zone is the bottom surface of a body of water. In the ocean, the benthic zone is divided into
additional zones based on depth below sea level.

Figure 1: The ocean is divided into many different zones, depending on distance from shore and depth of
water.

Aquatic Organisms

Aquatic organisms are classified into three basic categories: plankton, nekton, and benthos. Organisms in
these three categories vary in where they live and how they move.
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1. Plankton are aquatic organisms that live in the water itself and cannot propel themselves through
water. They include both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Phytoplankton are bacteria and algae that
use sunlight to make food by photosynthesis. Zooplankton are tiny animals that feed on
phytoplankton.
2. Nekton are aquatic animals that live in the water and can propel themselves by swimming or other
means. Nekton include invertebrates such as shrimp and vertebrates such as fish.
3. Benthos are aquatic organisms that live on the surface below a body of water. They live in or on the
sediments at the bottom. Benthos include sponges, clams, and sea stars .

Major Marine Biomes

Marine biomes are aquatic biomes found in the salt water of the ocean. Major marine biomes are
neritic, oceanic, and benthic biomes. Other marine biomes include intertidal zones, estuaries, and coral reefs.

1. Neritic biomes occur in ocean water over the continental shelf (see Figure 1). They extend from the
low-tide water line to the edge of the continental shelf. The water here is shallow, so there is enough
sunlight for photosynthesis. The water is also rich in nutrients, which are washed into the water from
the nearby land. Because of these favorable conditions, large populations of phytoplankton live in
neritic biomes. They produce enough food to support many other organisms, including both
zooplankton and nekton. As a result, neritic biomes have relatively great biomass and biodiversity.
They are occupied by many species of invertebrates and fish. In fact, most of the world’s major
saltwater fishing areas are in neritic biomes.
2. Oceanic Biomes
Oceanic biomes occur in the open ocean beyond the continental shelf. There are lower
concentrations of dissolved nutrients away from shore, so the oceanic zone has a lower density
of organisms than the neritic zone. The oceanic zone is divided into additional zones based on
water depth (see Figure 1).
• The epipelagic zone is the top 200 meters of water, or the depth to which enough sunlight can
penetrate for photosynthesis. Most open ocean organisms are concentrated in this zone, including
both plankton and nekton.
• The mesopelagic zone is between 200 and 1,000 meters below sea level. Some sunlight
penetrates to this depth but not enough for photosynthesis. Organisms in this zone consume food
drifting down from the epipelagic zone, or they prey upon other organisms in their own zone. Some
organisms are detrivores, which consume dead organisms and organic debris that also drift down
through the water.
• The bathypelagic zone is between 1,000 and 4,000 meters below sea level. No sunlight penetrates
below 1,000 meters, so this zone is completely dark. Most organisms in this zone either consume
dead organisms drifting down from above or prey upon other animals in their own zone. There are
fewer organisms and less biomass here than in higher zones. Some animals are bioluminescent,
which means they can give off light (see Figure 3). This is an adaptation to the total darkness.
• The abyssopelagic zone is between 4,000 and 6,000 meters below sea level. The hadopelagic
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zone is found in the water of deep ocean trenches below 6,000 meters. Both of these zones are
similar to the bathypelagic zone in being completely dark. They have even lower biomass and
species diversity.

Figure 3: The anglerfish lives in the bathypelagic zone. The rod-like structure protruding from the anglerfish’s face is
tipped with bioluminescent microorganisms. The structure wiggles like a worm to attract prey. Only the ”worm” is visible
to prey in the total darkness of this zone.

3. Benthic biomes occur on the bottom of the ocean where benthos live. Some benthos, including
sponges, are sessile, or unable to move, and live attached to the ocean floor. Other benthos,
including clams, burrow into sediments on the ocean floor. The benthic zone can be divided into
additional zones based on how far below sea level the ocean floor is (see Figure 1).

• The sublittoral zone is the part of the ocean floor that makes up the continental shelf near the
shoreline. The water is shallow enough for sunlight to penetrate down to the ocean floor. Therefore,
photosynthetic producers such as seaweed can grow on the ocean floor in this zone. The littoral
zone is rich in marine life.

• The bathyal zone is the part of the ocean floor that makes up the continental slope. It ranges from
about 1,000 to 4,000 meters below sea level. The bathyal zone contains no producers because it is
too far below the surface for sunlight to penetrate. Although consumers and decomposers live in this
zone, there are fewer organisms here than in the sublittoral zone.

• The abyssal zone is the part of the ocean floor in the deep open ocean. It varies from about 4,000
to 6,000 meters below sea level. Organisms that live on the ocean floor in this zone must be able to
withstand extreme water pressure, continuous cold, and scarcity of nutrients. Many of the organisms
sift through sediments on the ocean floor for food or dead organisms.
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• The hadal zone is the ocean floor below 6,000 meters in deep ocean trenches. The only places
where organisms are known to live in this zone are at hydrothermal vents, where invertebrates such
as tubeworms and clams are found. They depend on microscopic archaea organisms for food. These
tiny chemosynthetic producers obtain energy from chemicals leaving the vents.

Other Marine Biomes

The intertidal zone has high biodiversity. However, it is not the marine biome with the highest
biodiversity. That distinction goes to estuaries and coral reefs. They have the highest biodiversity of all marine
biomes.

1. The intertidal zone is a narrow strip along the coastline that falls between high- and lowtide water lines.
It is also called the littoral zone (see Figure 1). A dominant feature of this zone is the regular movement of
the tides in and out. In most areas, this occurs twice a day. Due to the tides, this zone alternates between
being under water at high tide and being exposed to the air at low tide.

2. An estuary is a bay where a river empties into the ocean. It is usually semi-enclosed, making it a protected
environment. The water is rich in dissolved nutrients from the river and shallow enough for sunlight to
penetrate for photosynthesis.

3. A coral reef is an underwater limestone structure produced by tiny invertebrate animals called corals.
Coral reefs are found only in shallow, tropical ocean water. Corals secrete calcium carbonate (limestone) to
form an external skeleton. Corals live in colonies, and the skeletal material gradually accumulates to form a
reef. Coral reefs are rich with marine organisms, including more than 4,000 species of tropical fish.

Fresh Water Biomes

Freshwater biomes occur in water that contains little or no salt. Freshwater biomes include standing
water and running water biomes.

1. Standing Freshwater Biomes

Standing freshwater biomes include ponds and lakes. Ponds are generally smaller than lakes and
shallow enough for sunlight to reach all the way to the bottom. In lakes, at least some of the water is too deep
for sunlight to penetrate. As a result, like the ocean, lakes can be divided into zones based on availability of
sunlight for producers.

a. The littoral zone is the water closest to shore. The water in the littoral zone is generally shallow
enough for sunlight to penetrate, allowing photosynthesis. Producers in this zone include both
phytoplankton and plants that float in the water. They provide food, oxygen, and habitat to other
aquatic organisms. The littoral zone generally has high productivity and high biodiversity.
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b. The limnetic zone is the top layer of lake water away from shore. This zone covers much of the
lake’s surface, but it is only as deep as sunlight can penetrate. This is a maximum of 200 meters. If
the water is muddy or cloudy, sunlight cannot penetrate as deeply. Photosynthesis occurs in this
zone, and the primary producers are phytoplankton, which float suspended in the water. Zooplankton
and nekton are also found in this zone. The limnetic zone is generally lower in productivity and
biodiversity than the littoral zone.

c. The profundal zone is the deep water near the bottom of a lake where no sunlight penetrates.
Photosynthesis cannot take place, so there are no producers in this zone. Consumers eat food that
drifts down from above, or they eat other organisms in the profundal zone. Decomposers break down
dead organisms that drift down through the water. This zone has low biodiversity.

d. The benthic zone is the bottom of a lake. Near the shore, where water is shallow, the bottom of the
lake receives sunlight, and plants can grow in sediments there. Organisms such as crayfish, snails,
and insects also live in and around the plants near shore. The plants provide shelter from predatory
fish as well as food and oxygen. In deeper water, where the bottom of the lake is completely dark,
there are no producers. Most organisms that live here are decomposers.

2. Running Freshwater Biomes

Running freshwater biomes include streams and rivers. Streams are generally smaller than rivers.
Streams may start with surface runoff, snowmelt from a glacier, or water seeping out of the ground from a
spring. If the land is not flat, the water runs downhill. The water joins other streams and then rivers as it flows
over the land. Eventually, the water empties into a pond, lake, or the ocean.

3. Wetlands

A wetland is an area that is saturated or covered by water for at least one season of the year.
Freshwater wetlands are also called swamps, marshes, or bogs. Saltwater wetlands include estuaries.
Wetland vegetation must be adapted to water-logged soil, which contains little oxygen. Freshwater wetland
plants include duckweed and cattails. Some wetlands also have trees. Their roots may be partly above
ground to allow gas exchange with the air. Wetlands are extremely important biomes for several reasons.

• They store excess water from floods and runoff.

• They absorb some of the energy of running water and help prevent erosion.
• They remove excess nutrients from runoff before it empties into rivers or lakes.
• They provide a unique habitat that certain communities of plants need to survive.
• They provide a safe, lush habitat for many species of animals.