ABSTRACT

We now introduce the powerful method of Laplace

transformation, which involves turning differential
equations into algebraic equations, thus greatly
facilitating the solution process. we will examine
how the Laplace transform is applied in circuit
analysis and network synthesis.

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EEC 325: CIRCUIT

THEORY IV
LAPLACE TRANSFORM AND ITS APPLICATION TO
NETWORK ANALYSIS
 EEC 325: CIRCUIT THEORY IV

LAPLACE TRANSFORM
In circuits with several capacitances and inductors, we often come across with
integrodifferential equations. Such equations can be rewritten as higher order DEs. The
classical method of solving the DEs is rather involved. Here, the complimentary solution and
the particular solution have to be determined and finally the arbitrary constants have to be
obtained from the initial conditions. The Laplace Transform (LT) method is much superior to
the classical method due to the following reasons.
1. Laplace transformation transforms exponential and trigonometric functions into
algebraic functions.
2. Laplace transformation transforms differentiation and integration into multiplication
and division respectively.
3. It transforms integro-differential equations into algebraic equations which are much
simpler to handle.
4. The arbitrary constants need not be determined separately. Complete solution will be
obtained directly.
The Laplace transform of the function of time f(t) is defined by the integral
∞

𝐹(𝑠) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0

The following Table 1 gives the LT of some important functions used quite often in transient
analysis.

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Example: Find the Laplace transform of

i. 6𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 − 4𝑐𝑜𝑠5𝑡
1
ii. 1 + 2𝑡 − 3 𝑡 4

iii. 5𝑒 2𝑡 − 3𝑒 −3𝑡
Use Table 1 to determine the Laplace transforms of the following waveforms:
a) a step voltage of 10 V which starts at time t = 0
b) a step voltage of 10 V which starts at time t = 5s
c) a ramp voltage which starts at zero and increases at 4 V/s
d) a ramp voltage which starts at time t = 1 s and increases at 4 V/s
e) an impulse voltage of 8 V which starts at time t = 2s
f) a sinusoidal current of 4 A and angular frequency 5 rad/s which starts at time t = 0
g) 2𝑡 4 𝑒 3𝑡

Laplace transforms of derivatives

Using integration by parts, it may be shown that:
a. for the first derivative:

where y(0) is the value of y at x = 0

b. for the second derivative:

where yl (0) is the value of (dy/dx) at x = 0

Inverse Laplace transforms

finding an inverse transform involves locating the Laplace transform from the right-hand
column of Table 1 and then reading the function from the left-hand column. The following
worked example demonstrate the method.
Example: Find the following inverse Laplace transforms

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While finding inverse Laplace Transform, in many cases, as a first step, F(s) is to be split into
sum of functions in s. This is done using partial fraction method.
For example, the function
2𝑠 − 3
𝐹(𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 3)
cannot be inverted on sight from Table 1. However, using partial fractions:
2𝑠 − 3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴(𝑠 − 3) + 𝐵𝑠
𝐹(𝑠) = = + =
𝑠(𝑠 − 3) 𝑠 𝑠 − 3 𝑠(𝑠 − 3)
By compering coefficients of the numerator, the values of A and B are determined.
Partial fraction expansion when F(s) involves repeated poles
𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1)2 𝑠 + 3 𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 1)2
Partial fraction expansion when F(s) involves complex pole
5𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 − 2 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
2
= + 2
(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 + 3 𝑠 + 1
Zeros and poles
The transfer function can be expressed in terms of its numerator polynomial and denominator
polynomial as 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑁(𝑠)/𝐷(𝑠). The roots of N(s) are called the zeros of G(s) and are usually
represented as s = z1, z2, …Similarly, the roots of D(s) are the poles of G(s)and are represented
as s= p1, p2, ...
A zero, as a root of the numerator polynomial, is a value that results in a zero value of the
function. A pole, as a root of the denominator polynomial, is a value for which the function is
infinite.

THE DIRAC DELTA (IMPULSE) FUNCTION

The Dirac delta function is a non-physical, singularity function with the following definition

but with the requirement that

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 EEC 325: CIRCUIT THEORY IV

that is, the function has unit area.

Figure 1: Unit pulses and the Dirac delta function.

Figure 1 shows a unit pulse function δT(t), that is a brief rectangular pulse function of duration
T, defined to have a constant amplitude 1/T over its extent, so that the area T ×1/T under the
pulse is unity:

The Dirac delta function (also known as the impulse function) can be defined as the limiting
form of the unit pulse δT(t) as the duration T approaches zero. As the duration T of δT(t)
decreases, the amplitude of the pulse increases to maintain the requirement of unit area under
the function, and δ(t) = lim δT(t). T→0. The impulse is therefore defined to exist only at time
t = 0, and although its value is strictly undefined at that time, it must tend toward infinity so as
to maintain the property of unit area in the limit. The strength of a scaled impulse Kδ(t) is
defined by its area K.

The limiting form of many other functions may be used to approximate the impulse. Common
functions include triangular, gaussian, and sine (sin(x)/x) functions.

Although true impulse functions are not found in nature, they are approximated by short
duration, high amplitude phenomena such as a hammer impact on a structure, or a lightning
strike on a radio antenna.

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Properties of Laplace Transform

The properties of the Laplace transform help us to obtain transform pairs without directly
using the equation.

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Example: Find the Laplace transform of the gate function in

Solution:
We can express the gate function as

Since we know the Laplace transform of u(t), we apply the time-shift property and obtain.

Exercise: Find the Laplace transform of the function h(t)

Example: Calculate the Laplace transform of the periodic function

Solution:
The period of the function is T = 2, we first obtain the transform of the first period of the
function

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Using the time-shift property,

Thus, the transform of the periodic function is

Exercise: Determine the Laplace transform of the periodic function in Fig.

Initial and Final Values Theorem

The initial-value and final-value properties allow us to find the initial value and the final value
of f(t) directly from its Laplace transform F(s). To obtain these properties, we begin with the
differentiation property namely

If we let s→∞ the integrand in the equation vanishes due to the damping exponential factor,
and the equation becomes

Since f(0) is independent of s, we can write

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This is known as the initial-value theorem.

For example, we know

Using the initial-value theorem,

which confirms what we would expect from the given f(t).

if we let s →0 then

Or

This is referred to as the final-value theorem. In order for the finalvalue theorem to hold, all
poles of F(s) must be located in the left half of the splane. The only exception to this
requirement is the case in which F(s) has a simple pole at s = 0 because the effect 1/s of will
be nullified by sF(s)
For example

Applying the final value theorem

As expected from the given f(t). as another example

So that,

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This is incorrect, because f(t) = sin t oscillates between +1 and -1 and does not have a limit as
t tends to infinity.
Example: Find the initial and final values of the function whose Laplace transform is

To be sure that the final-value theorem is applicable, we check where the poles of H(s) are
located.

The poles of H(s) are s= -3, -4+j3, -4-j3. which all have negative real parts: they are all
located on the left half of the splane (refer to figure above) Hence, the final-value theorem
applies and

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 EEC 325: CIRCUIT THEORY IV

APPLICATION OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM TO CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Having mastered how to obtain the Laplace transform and its inverse, we are now prepared to
employ the Laplace transform to analyse circuits. This usually involves three steps.
1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the s-domain.
2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source transformation,
superposition, or any circuit analysis technique with which we are familiar.
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution in the time
domain.
Time-domain and s-domain representations of passive elements under zero initial
Condition

resistor inductor capacitor

Representation of inductor with initial condition

(a) time domain, (b,c) s-domain equivalents.

Representation of capacitor with initial condition

(a) time-domain, (b,c) s-domain equivalents.

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The elegance of using the Laplace transform in circuit analysis lies in the automatic inclusion
of the initial conditions in the transformation process, thus providing a complete (transient and
steady-state) solution.

Example: For the circuit shown below, obtain the transform circuit

Solution: Fig. below shows the transform circuit.

Example: A circuit comprises a 50 Ω resistor, a 5 mH inductor and a 0.04 µF capacitor.

Determine, in the s-domain (a) the impedance when the components are connected in series,
and (b) the admittance when the components are connected in parallel.

Example: Determine an expression for (a) the current i through, and (b) the voltage vc across
the capacitor for the circuit shown in Figure, after the switch is closed with a supply step voltage
of V volts. Assume that the capacitor is initially uncharged.

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Solution

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Example: In the R–C series circuit shown in figure; a ramp voltage V is applied to the input.
Determine expressions for (a) current, i, and (b) capacitor voltage, vc

Example: Derive an equation for current i flowing through the 1kΩ resistor in Figure: when
the switch is moved from x to y. Assume that the switch has been in position x for some time.

Solution
The 2 µF capacitor will have become fully charged to 50 V after a period of time. When the
switch is changed from x to y the charged capacitor can be considered to be a voltage
generator of voltage (50/s). The s-domain circuit is shown in Figure

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Example: Determine for the R–L series circuit shown in Figure; expressions for current i,
inductor voltage vL and resistor voltage vR when a step voltage V is applied to the input
terminals.

Solution
The s-domain circuit is shown in Figure

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Example: At time t = 0, a sinusoidal voltage 10sinωt is applied to an L–R series circuit.

Determine an expression for the current flowing.

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Example: For the circuit shown in Figure produce an equation which shows how the current
varies with time. Assume zero initial conditions when the switch is closed.

Solution

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Example: Find vo(t) in the circuit of Fig assuming zero initial conditions.

Solution

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For mesh 1
1 3 3
= (1 + ) 𝐼1 − 𝐼2
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
For mesh 2
3 3
0 = − 𝐼1 + (𝑠 + 5 + ) 𝐼2
𝑠 𝑠
1
𝐼1 = (𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 3)𝐼2
3
Therefore,
1 3 1 3
= (1 + ) × (𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 3)𝐼2 − 𝐼2
𝑠 𝑠 3 𝑠
3 = (𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 18𝑠)𝐼2
3
𝐼2 =
(𝑠 3 + 8𝑠 2 + 18𝑠)
3 3 √2
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐼2 = =
(𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 18) √2 (𝑠 + 4)2 + √22

Taking inverse Laplace transform yields

3
𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −4𝑡 sin √2 𝑡 𝑉 𝑡≥0
√2
Example
Find vo(t) in the circuit of Fig. Assume vo (0) = 5V

Solution:
The transformed circuit is

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apply nodal analysis. At the top node

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Example: Consider the circuit in Fig. Find the value of the voltage across the capacitor
assuming that the value of vs(t) = 10u(t) V and assume that at time t = 0, -1 A flows through
the inductor and +5 V is across the capacitor.

Solution:

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