yWhat does curriculum development involve?

Curriculum development describes all the ways in which a training or teaching organization plans and
guides learning. This learning can take place in groups or with individual learners. It can take place inside
or outside a classroom.

What is included in curriculum development?

Curriculum development should be viewed as a process by which meeting student needs leads to
improvement of student learning. The data should include samples of assessments, lessons from
teachers, assignments, scores on state standardized tests, textbooks currently used, student perception
and feedback from parents.

What is student-cantered learning approach?

Student-cantered learning is personalized, engaging, competency-based and not restricted to the

classroom. Students take greater responsibility for their learning and support each other's progress, so
every student gets the skills he or she needs to succeed and contribute to society.

What is Competency?

Competency represents the combined skills, processes, behaviours and habits of mind that learners use
to make sense of the world.

What is concept?

A concept is a mental construct or idea that organizes a pattern or commonality across a category of
objects, events, or properties

What is Constructivism?

Constructivism is a theory of learning that posits that learning occurs as students are actively involved in
a process of meaning and knowledge construction as opposed to passively receiving information.
Constructivism views learners as actively constructing their own knowledge and understanding of the
world through experience and reflection. Constructivist approaches to instruction include experiential,
inquiry-based, project-based and other forms of active learning.

What is Learning Environment?

A learning environment is the combined social, physical, psychological, and pedagogical contexts within
which learning takes place.

What is learning standard?

A learning standard is an explicit statement of what students are expected know, understand and be
able to do in a given grade and area of learning
What is self-directed learning?

Self-directed learning is an approach to learning in which students select, manage and assess their own
learning activities.

What is subject area?

Subject area is the term used in the IRPs to describe what students are expected to know and be able to
do in a subject.

What is curriculum?

The total set of stimuli deliberately brought to bear during a designated time period, with the intention
of nurturing or producing student learning.

What is curriculum design?

An image of curricular parts and how they fit together.

What is instructional objective?

A precise designation of intended learning outcomes that further clarifies a course objective by
specifying the level(s) of attainment expected.

What is knowledge?

Mental representations stored in long-term memory.

What is learning outcome?

"statements of observable/measurable knowledge, skills and values that learners are to acquire and
develop at specific stages of their schooling"

What is rule?

A statement of a single operation or step to be undertaken in completing a task.

Bobbit (1924), “all the organized and unorganized educational experiences students encounter”. –

Tyler (1957), “all that is planned and directed by teachers to achieve the educational goals”.

- Glatthorn (1987), “plans for guiding teaching and learning”. –

English (1992), “a work plan that includes both content and strategies for teaching and learning
process.”

- Tanner & Tanner (1995), “the reconstruction of knowledge & experience under the guidance of school.
Reinhartz and Beach (1997),

“a flexible plan for teaching to meet needs of students and also provides opportunities for teachable
moments.” –

Schubert (1993),

“The term curriculum is shrouded in definitional controversy; definitions continue to evolve, based upon
educational conditions at a given time in history and our understanding of teaching learning.” –

Ellis (2004), “

Prescriptive curriculum is about what “ought” to happen, it can take the form of a plan, an intended
program, or some kind of expert opinion about what needs to take place in the course of study”

Lecture 2

Lecture 4

Curriculum Theory

Definition: Curriculum Theory is about understanding and explaining what curriculum means and how to
use it effectively. It involves thinking deeply and reflecting on these ideas.

Sources of Curriculum Theory: It comes from different philosophical ideas, including:

 Pragmatism: Focuses on practical solutions and real-life applications.

 Idealism: Emphasizes ideas and ideals that shape education.

 Realism: Concentrates on the real world and observable facts.

  Existentialism: Stresses individual experiences and personal choices in learning.

 Phenomenology: Explores how people experience and understand their world.

 Scholasticism: Involves traditional learning and critical thinking.

 Critical Theory: Analyzes social issues and aims for social change through education.

Functions in Curriculum Design

Curriculum design has two main functions:

1. Analysis

o Purpose: To make sure all parts of the curriculum work well together.

o When It's Done:

 For a whole program (like a school subject).

 For a specific grade level (like 5th grade).

 For a subject area (like math or science).

o Also Done For:

 Individual lessons or units.

 Textbooks.

 Teacher guides and lesson plans.

2. Curriculum Creation

o Process: Starts with understanding what we believe (assumptions), what we want to

achieve (purposes and objectives), and then choosing the right content to help reach
those goals.

o Steps Involved:

 Select the content.

 Organize materials and the learning environment.

 Evaluate the curriculum to see if it needs changes.

o Flexibility: You can start making changes at any stage and continue through the process.

Topic 14: Curriculum Studies – Domains2 Lesson No 3 CURRICULUM DOMAINS

Curriculum History is about looking at and understanding how curriculum ideas and practices have
changed over time.

Studying the past helps us to:

 Understand today's curriculum better by knowing where it came from.

 Learn from past experiences to solve similar problems we face now.

 Discover what has helped or hurt changes in curriculum.

 Examine our current situation and make plans for the future.Curriculum development is the
process of figuring out what students should be taught and learned, along with all the things
that need to be considered when making these decisions.

 It requires careful thinking about:

 History

 Society

 Philosophy (the study of ideas and beliefs)

 Culture

 Politics

 Economics (the study of money and resources)

 It also looks at important topics like:

 The goals of education

 The subjects to be taught

 How to organize the lessons

 The methods used to teach

 How to assess and improve the curriculum

Topic 15: Curriculum Studies - Domains 3

Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is the process of figuring out what should be taught and learned. It requires
careful thought about:

 History

 Society

 Philosophy (big ideas about life)

 Culture
  Politics

 Economics (money and resources)

It also involves considering important topics like:

 The goals of education

Curriculum Studies - Domains 4

Curriculum design is a part of curriculum development, but it focuses on specific details. It has four main
parts:

1. Objectives - What we want students to learn.

2. Content - The subjects and information that will be taught.

3. Organization - How the lessons and materials are arranged.

4. Evaluation - How we check if students are learning and if the curriculum is working.

These four parts help in:

 Planning guides for the curriculum.

 Analyzing teaching materials.

 Creating lesson plans.

 Developing computer programs for learning.

 Making educational games and other learning tools.

Topic 18: Curriculum Studies - Domains 5

Curriculum Implementation

1. Delivery Process: This means how the curriculum is put into action in the classroom.

2. System of Engineering: It involves taking the plans for the curriculum and making sure they
reach the teachers and students effectively.

3. Teaching Process: It's about how teachers actually teach the curriculum.

Instead of making the curriculum so strict that it can't be changed, teachers are viewed as creative
individuals who can adapt and modify the curriculum to fit their students' needs.

Curriculum implementation is not just about following rules; it's about creating learning experiences
based on ongoing interactions between teachers and students.
Topic 19: Curriculum Studies - Domains 6

Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of checking how well students and teaching methods, materials, or programs
are doing. It can be used for:

 Starting a new program

 Ending a program

 Ongoing checks and updates of the curriculum

Evaluation can focus on:

 Individual students in a classroom

 A larger program

Usually, curriculum evaluation looks at whether the goals set at the beginning are being met using the
methods that were planned.

 What information and skills to include

 How to organize the material

 How to teach it

 How to check if students are learning and how to make changes if needed

Topic 20: Curriculum Studies -Domains 7

Curriculum Change Curriculum revision, innovation, renewal and improvement –

taken as change: 

the careful planning of change, 

the involvement of all concerned, 

analysis of supporting forces, 

analysis of resisting forces, 

The development of both individuals & organizations; all is geared toward the end of improving
(change) curriculum.

Topic 21: Curriculum Studies -Domains 8

Curriculum Inquiry Curriculum inquiry and research can be used synonymously but inquiry is given
broader meaning than research. Inquiry includes:  Logical positivist and objectivist orientation
  Right and Wrong: Students should learn to clearly distinguish between right and wrong, with
specific rules they are expected to follow.

 Major Foundation of Curriculum

 The major foundations of curriculum are:
 • Philosophical
 • Historical
 • Psychological
 • Social (socio-economic)
 philosophical foundations of curriculum refer to the underlying beliefs, values, and principles
that guide educational practices and curriculum development. These foundations influence how
knowledge is perceived, what is considered valuable to learn, and how education is delivered.

 The connection between philosophy and curriculum is essential in shaping educational

practices, goals, and content.
 When making a curriculum, philosophy provides a guiding framework that helps define the
overall purpose, goals, and values of education. It doesn't focus primarily on the specific content
or material of the curriculum, but rather on how the curriculum should be structured, taught,
and approached to reflect educational beliefs and ideals.
 For example, if a curriculum is based on a progressive philosophy, it might emphasize student-
centered learning, critical thinking, and real-world problem-solving, shaping both the structure
and teaching methods. On the other hand, an essentialist philosophy might focus more on
traditional academic knowledge, prioritizing core subjects and standardized content.
 In short, philosophy influences the approach to curriculum development rather than the specific
content, guiding how learning should happen and what educational outcomes are valued.

 There are two types of theories:

 1. Perspective : Prescriptive Theory focuses upon:  What is worthwhile to know?  How do we
know it is worthwhile?  How its worth can be justified
 2. Descriptive ? Descriptive Theory focuses upon: How can ‘reality’ be modeled so that we know
its salient features? As a result we can:  explain  predict and  control curricular activity & 
Behavior

- Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant
today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should be studied in schools. They believe that the
ideas of history's finest thinkers are meaningful even today. - The study of these enduring ideas will
enable students to appreciate learning for its own sake as well as develop their intellectual powers and
moral qualities.

Characteristics of a Perennialist Curriculum

Based on Perennialism, a curriculum should include:

  Philosophy: Students should study philosophy to learn timeless ideas that help them better
understand human nature and life.

 Religious Values or Ethics: Teaching moral and ethical values is important.

Essentialism
Essentialism comes from the word ‘essential’ which means the main things or the basics.

Essentialism is an educational philosophy that focuses on teaching students the core knowledge and
skills they need to become productive members of society. For example , science ,mathematics and so
on

Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the world through scientific
experimentation. To teach important knowledge about the world, essentialists emphasized instruction
in natural science rather than non scientific disciplines such as philosophy & comparative religion.

Key Characteristics of Essentialism:

 Basic Subjects: Focus on essential subjects like reading, writing, math, science, and history.

 Teacher-Centered Approach: The teacher is the authority, guiding students through structured
lessons.

 Discipline and Hard Work: Students are expected to develop discipline, respect for authority,
and a strong work ethic.

 Knowledge for Life: Emphasis on practical knowledge that students can use in real life.

 Back-to-Basics: Stresses the importance of mastering fundamental skills before moving on to

advanced topics.

This approach ensures students have a strong foundation of knowledge to succeed in both personal and
professional life.

Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading & measurement. While learning
art and music (creativity) students are required to master a body of information & basic techniques,
gradually moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge.

Topic 28: Progressivism argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature
social and learn best in real-life activities with other people. The role of education is to transmit society’s
identity by preparing young people for adult life. Education should allow learners to realize their
interests and potential. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation
separates the mind from action. ‘Learning by doing’ is emphasized.

Progressivism in Curriculum
Progressivism is an educational philosophy that focuses on student-centered learning, where students
actively engage in problem-solving and real-world experiences.

Key Characteristics of a Progressive Curriculum:

 Experiential Learning: Students learn through hands-on activities and practical experiences.

 Focus on Problem-Solving: Emphasizes critical thinking and encourages students to find

solutions to real-life challenges.

 Student-Centered Approach: The interests and needs of students guide the learning process.

 Active Learning: Students participate in discussions, projects, and group work instead of just
listening to lectures.

 Flexible Curriculum: Topics are integrated and connected to real-world issues, not limited to
rigid subject boundaries.

 Social Development: Promotes teamwork, communication, and learning to live and work with
others.

 Continuous Growth: Focuses on personal development and lifelong learning, rather than
memorizing facts.

This approach encourages students to think independently and become active participants in their
education.

Lesson 28 : Philosophical Foundation "Progressivism Argues

Progressivism argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and
learn best in real-life activities with other people. The role of education is to transmit society’s identity
by preparing young people for adult life.

Education should allow learners to realize their interests and potential.

BEHAVIORISM / BEHAVIORISTIC THEORY

Behaviorism is based upon the idea that:

• all behaviors are acquired through conditioning

• conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment

• conditioning can be used to learn new information & behaviors

• behaviors can be measured, trained, & changed

• behaviors are observable, so it is easier to collect data or information about learning & to quantify
learning.

Behaviorist curriculum focuses upon:

Ø learning that occurs through reinforcement & punishment for

 behavior

Ø organizing learning so that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject
matter.

Lesson 36 : Constructivism/Constructivist Theory

COGNITIVISM / COGNITIVE THEORY

Cognitivism focuses on:

• learning as an internal mental process

• processing

• management & monitoring of information

• working of human memory to promote learning.

According to cognitivist:

• memory system is an active & organized processor of information

• prior knowledge plays an important role in learning

• understanding of short & long term memory is important

Cognitivist curricularist stresses that:

• the individual learner is more important than the environment.

• teacher / educator should focus on building intelligence & cognitive development of learner.

The null curriculum refers to the content and experiences that are intentionally excluded from the
educational curriculum. While not officially recognized, the null curriculum plays a significant role in
shaping what students learn—or do not learn—through omission. Here’s a closer look:

Null Curriculum
Definition:

 The null curriculum consists of topics, subjects, or perspectives that are deliberately left out of
the formal curriculum. This omission can reflect societal values, educational priorities, and
institutional decisions.

Characteristics:

 Omission: Includes subjects or content that are not taught, which can limit students’ exposure
to diverse ideas and knowledge.

 Influence on Perception: What is excluded can communicate values about what is deemed
important or unimportant in education.
  Cultural and Political Factors: Decisions about the null curriculum often stem from cultural,
political, or ideological considerations, influencing what is considered acceptable or appropriate
in the educational context.

Examples:

 Topics such as certain historical events, social issues, or alternative perspectives that may be
overlooked or avoided in the curriculum.

 Subjects that may not align with standardized testing or state educational standards.

Implications:

 The null curriculum can shape students’ understanding of the world, potentially creating gaps in
knowledge and limiting critical thinking about omitted topics.

 Educators may need to be aware of the null curriculum to ensure a more comprehensive and
inclusive educational experience for students.

By recognizing the null curriculum, educators can strive for a more balanced and equitable approach to
teaching, addressing gaps in knowledge and promoting critical engagement with a wider range of topics.

The implicit curriculum refers to the lessons, values, and attitudes that students learn in school through
experiences that are not formally stated or explicitly taught. It encompasses the unspoken or unofficial
elements of the educational environment that influence students’ development and socialization. Here’s
a deeper look:

Implicit Curriculum
Definition:

 The implicit curriculum includes the underlying messages conveyed through school culture,
interactions, and daily practices that affect students’ learning and behavior.

Characteristics:

 Unwritten Rules: Involves social norms, expectations, and behaviors that are learned through
observation and experience rather than direct instruction.

 Influential Environment: The physical and social environment of a school—such as teacher-

student interactions, peer relationships, and classroom management—shapes students'
understanding of what is valued.

 Cultural Values: Reflects the broader cultural, social, and political contexts that influence
educational practices and student experiences.

Examples:
  Learning to collaborate and work in teams through group projects.

 Observing respect for authority figures and rules of conduct in the classroom.

 Absorbing societal values regarding diversity, gender roles, or competition through school
policies and practices.

Implications:

 The implicit curriculum can significantly impact students’ social skills, attitudes, and worldviews,
often more profoundly than the formal curriculum.

 Educators need to be aware of the implicit curriculum to create a positive and inclusive learning
environment that aligns with educational goals.

Recognizing and addressing the implicit curriculum allows educators to enhance the overall educational
experience, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of not just academic content but also social
and emotional development.

The co-curricular curriculum refers to activities and programs that complement and enhance the formal
academic curriculum. These activities typically occur alongside traditional classroom learning and are
designed to support students' overall development. Here’s an overview:

Co-Curricular Curriculum
Definition:

 Co-curricular activities are structured programs that occur in conjunction with the formal
curriculum, providing opportunities for students to engage in learning experiences outside of
the classroom setting.

Examples:

 Sports Teams: Encourage teamwork, discipline, and physical fitness.

 Debate Clubs: Develop critical thinking, public speaking, and communication skills.

 Arts Programs: Enhance creativity and self-expression through music, theater, or visual arts.

 Service Learning: Engage students in community service projects that promote social
responsibility and civic engagement.

Implications:

 Co-curricular activities can enhance students’ educational experiences by promoting

engagement, motivation, and a sense of belonging.

 They provide opportunities for skill development that may not be covered in the formal
curriculum, such as leadership, teamwork, and time management.

Certainly! Here’s a concise overview of the major types of curriculum:

Major Types of Curriculum

1. Formal Curriculum/ Explicit Curriculum

o The structured, official curriculum set by educational institutions, including subjects,
content, and assessments.

Informal Curriculum/Implicit Curriculum

2.

o Unplanned learning experiences that occur outside the formal curriculum, such as social
interactions and extracurricular activities.

3. Hidden Curriculum/Null Curriculum

o The implicit lessons and values learned in school that are not explicitly taught, such as
social norms and attitudes.

4. Core Curriculum

o A set of required subjects that all students must take, focusing on foundational
knowledge and skills.

Examples:

 Sports Teams: Encourage teamwork, discipline, and physical fitness.

 Debate Clubs: Develop critical thinking, public speaking, and communication skills.

 Arts Programs: Enhance creativity and self-expression through music, theater, or visual arts.

 Service Learning: Engage students in community service projects that promote social
responsibility and civic engagement.

Explicit Curriculum Explicit / written curriculum

possesses defined: • "mission" of the school, • subjects to be taught, • lessons to cover • knowledge &
skills This type of curriculum is expected to be acquired by the students. It is "obvious” & "apparent” It
exhibits: measurable & observable ‘learning objectives’  contact hours,  time for activities

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PART-II

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT - I

First part of Curriculum development includes curriculum as images, views about curriculum, purpose
and scope of curriculum, element, domains and foundations of curriculum.
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT - II

How do we proceed next?

How do we address questions like?

Ø What knowledge is worthwhile?

Ø What experience is worthwhile?

Or

“Think & do” of curriculum

Ø What do we think about, what considerations are more relevant when we do curriculum?

Ø How do we think about these matters?

These questions lead to the consideration of paradigms.

A ‘paradigm’ or ‘framework’ – is a loosely connected set of ideas, values, & rules that governs the:

Ø conduct of inquiry

Ø way in which data are interpreted

Ø Way in which world may be viewed?

Paradigm comprises assumptions about:

• learning & teaching,

• nature of reality,

• knowledge,

• intelligence,

• inquiry & discourse,

• naming of problems

• approaches to problem solving &

• Social & political values.

Paradigms of curriculum

The paradigms of curriculum refer to different frameworks or models used to design, develop, and
evaluate educational curricula. Each paradigm reflects a unique way of thinking about what knowledge
is essential and how it should be delivered, focusing on the purpose of education, learning processes,
and desired outcome.
Core Principles of Tyler’s Technical Paradigm

Tyler proposed four fundamental questions for curriculum development:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

o Establish learning objectives aligned with students' needs and societal expectations.

2. What educational experiences can be provided to attain these purposes?

o Identify content, methods, and activities that will facilitate the achievement of learning
goals.

3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

o Arrange experiences in a logical sequence to maximize learning (e.g., from simple to

complex concepts).

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

o Evaluate outcomes using assessments to see if objectives have been met.

Joseph Schwab’s/ Practical Paradigm

Joseph Schwab’s Practical Paradigm emphasizes that curriculum design should

be a dynamic and flexible process that considers real-life situations. Unlike
technical models that focus on strict objectives, Schwab argued that curriculum is
more of a practical art that requires the involvement of multiple perspectives and
continuous adaptation.
Key Ideas of Schwab’s Practical Paradigm (in Simple Words)
Teachers, • Learners, • Subject, & • Milieu.

Basic Characteristics: • The elements continually influence one

another. • Classroom realities are of great significance so teachers
must turn to:  Inquiry & deliberation about the continuously changing
dynamics of the common-places.
Topic 45: William Doll’s Paradigm
William Doll’s Postmodern Curriculum Paradigm emphasizes a shift
from traditional, structured approaches to curriculum toward more
flexible, dynamic, and interconnected ways of thinking.
• Pre-Modern • Modern • Postmodern
PRE-MODERN PARADIGM
Pre-Modern Paradigm sets forth:
• an ideal of order
• symmetry
• balance &
• Harmony.
In this paradigm, education consists of striving to learn:
• essential and eternal truths or
• Principles for how one lives in the world.