Fred Luthans defines the term personality as, “how people affect others and how they understand

and
view themselves, as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable traits and the person-situation
intervention.”
Robbins defines personality as, “the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts until
others.”
“Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.” — Stephen
P. Robbins

Personality – Nature
The nature of every individual is attributed to his personality. Generally, an individual asserts through
his behavioural characteristics. Matured persons with their longstanding experience, take an objective
attitude towards themselves and others. They also introspect, so as to help improve upon their nature and
behaviour.
i. Self-Conscious:
There is a vast difference between human being and other species. The special feature of his nature is
‘self-consciousness’, which makes him aware of his surroundings and self-identity.
ii. Adaptability to Environment:
Personality, off and on, does make adjustments according to the changes desired. Resistance to change,
means a conflict with tension and unpleasantness. Normally, people adapt to the changed situations and
challenges. Adaptation to new situations often follows a modification in behavioural pattern leading to
a smooth working condition and a conducive environment.
iii. Goal Oriented:
Persons strive for achievement of goal. Individuals do have the drive to achieve goals. Wants and needs
lead to motive. The desire of an individual directs the behaviour for the fulfilment of the same. Both the
physiological and social motives make behavioural changes.
iv. Integration of Personality:
Personality works in consistency by integrating various activities (of mental and also experiences of the
individual) together. Personality differs in the form of its integration. Persons with developed
personalities are highly integrated with values and experiences. This depends on the standards of
behaviour, which they have acquired right from the childhood.

Personality – Top 3 Determinants: Heredity, Environment and Situation

Different theories propose different factors that determine an individual personality. The most popular
research work done by Freud deals with the identification of self-concept. Self-concept include things
(factor) got by nature like gene, i.e., heredity and the biological formations and by nurture, i.e., through
the social and environmental factors. The major determinants of personality are her edity, environment
and situation.
Determinant # 1. Heredity:
Heredity refers to those factors, which predisposes to certain physical, mental and emotional states. It
sets the outer parameters of an individual. It also limits the range of development of characters. The
arrangement and structure of genes that are located in the chromosomes is passed around 20% to 50%
from one generation to another. The studies reveal that twins though brought up in different places exhibit
similar characters.
Thus, heredity is the transmission of qualities from ancestor to descendent through, a mechanism lying
primarily in the genes. There are very many achievers in their own field like Sachin Tendulkar, U.R.
Rao, N.R. Narayana Murthy, Former Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao, who gave a new turn to Indian
economy and many such others, who are unique in their own, way. These achievers’ performance is
directed by hereditary factor to certain extent.
Determinant # 2. Environment:
Environment refers to the surroundings in which the individuals are brought up. The environmental
factors relating to the formation of personality includes culture, family, society upbringing and
experiences. Experiences relate to the confrontation with that of family members, relatives, and friends
and to the social groups, which they belong. Culture helps to find the similarity and difference in
behaviour.
Family environment refers to the individual’s upbringing, the social and economic status the family holds
and the size of the family. The society makes an individual to play different roles thus shaping his/her
their personality. Environment tends to strengthen or weaken hereditary traits. For example, when an
individual interacts with the environment through speech, his speech organs guarantee that he/she is
learning to speak.
Determinant # 3. Situation:
Situation has an effect both on environment and heredity. Situation demands certain behaviour. Various
psychologists have discovered what personality trait matters to an individual in his or her car eer. Being
successful or unsuccessful depends upon how the individuals control their behaviour in various
situations. For example, a candidate attending an interview may exhibit limited traits. The other trait or
behaviour is concealed or not exhibited.

Personality – 4 Main Stages involved in the Personality Formation

Personality formation can mainly be divided into four stages, as given below:
1. Primary attachment
2. Family role and identification
3. Entering of a child into social world
4. Adolescent stage.
1. Primary Attachment:
It is a natural phenomenon that a child gets attached to a person(s) taking adequate care of the child. In
this stage, the child after a few weeks starts responding with ‘a smile’ to whom it is attached. It also
requires nourishment for proper growth. Normally, it resorts to crying for satisfaction of needs. During
this period, a child is relatively passive and needs utmost care by those around.
2. Family Role and Identification:
This stage is between 2 and 6 years, during which the child understands the family interactions and some
social normal, etc. It acquires sufficient knowledge to differentiate between father and mother (male and
female). This is the stage of life, when child needs care, affection and recognition coupled wit h response
to growth of personality.
3. Entering of Child into the Social World:
During this stage child starts adhering to the social norms by actively taking part in school life. He tries
to be independent, as the major part of the day is spent outside home. The child imitates and adopts the
qualities from friends, teachers and others.
4. Adolescent Stage:
The child’s personality may show much flexibility. During this period, certain traits are set aside and
adoption of new traits takes place. This is the time, when bodily and sexual developments do occur.
A child normally has logical thinking between 7 and 8 years of age. When he attains the age of 13, there
is every possibility of an ‘Abstract thinking’ and the process of ‘Reasoning’ are evident. From this stage,
a child enters into the ‘Adult’, the prime stage of life.
Normal development of personality occurs through the process of identification and displacement, when
conflict appears, identification and displacement are a common phenomenon. Conflicts arise mainly due
to physiological growth, frustration, and threat from outside. Tension is normally created by conflicts
and the individual resorts to identification and displacement.
This process may be either partial or total. For example, an individual may hold his father’s role in high
esteem in certain respects, however, in other respects, he may try to identify the qualities received from
other people. Hence, the behaviour of an individual is the outcome of various identifications; likewise,
the displacement also takes place in an individual.

Personality – Big Five Personality Traits: Extroversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional

Stability and Openness to Experience
1. Extroversion:
People get the energy from their preference of extroversion or introversion. The people who prefer
extroversion get the energy from their interactions with other people. The people who prefer introversion
get energy by spending time or doing the activities by themselves. Extroversion types people develop
and maintain wide-range of social network while the introversion, type people narrow down their
relationships to a few people.
According to Jung, even the introverts possess social skills, but prefer internal world of ideas, thoughts
and concepts. In fact certain societies encourage and reward extroverts. Extroverts at workplace prefer
variety and they don’t mind the interruptions at workplace by people/co -workers.
They prefer relationships over quality and quantity of output. In contrast, the introverts prefer complete
concentration and least disturbances at workplace by people/coworkers and telephone calls. They prefer
quality and quantity of output over relationships. Introverts prefer to work in isolation and concentrate
on performance.
Extroversion represents a person’s interest in the external world. Person’s interest in the external world
can be exhibited through sociability, talkativeness/gregariousness and assertiveness. Thus, this
dimension deals with relationships with others. Extroverts are assertive, sociable, talkative, gregarious
people and introverts are reserved, timid and quiet.
(a) Sociability:
Sociability is the ability of a person in maintaining interrelationship within a social group. Some
executives possess the trait of maintaining social relations with their subordinates. They visit the
subordinate’s houses; enquire about the subordinates’ health, financial, family, children’s educational
and marriage issues. They participate in various social functions organized by the subordinates.
The employees with high social skills create, nurture and develop social networks. Such employees never
feel the social relations as disturbance even at the workplace. Sociability of executives and superiors
tend to result in positive job behaviour and improved job performance of subordinates.
Mr. Ravi, Human Resources Manager of Nutrine Confectionary Ltd., has been highly sociable, visits the
employees’ families and monitors their welfare. During one summer when there was heavy demand for
chocolates, employees refused to work beyond the scheduled hours despite his repeated requests.
Then Mr. Ravi arranged for a social get-together of the employees’ family members and explained to
them the demands of the company regarding overtime work. The convinced family members influenced
the employees to concede to the demand of the HR Manager. Thus, the sociability trait of Mr. Ravi
resulted in positive job behaviour and enhanced the production of the company.
(b) Talkative:
People with talkative skills are with open-mind and speak their mind to others. They disseminate and
share information with others without any hesitation. They also voice various issues, ventilate employee
grievances and proact on various organizational and employee issues. Many executives, with their
speaking skills attract and influence the subordinates regarding their job behaviour and performance. Mr.
Mahajan of Grindwell Norton is a skilled speaker.
He is good at making presentations. He talks on various issues and attracts the employees and majo r
customers. He makes enquiries with the employees regarding their family issues, welfare, etc. His
subordinates are influenced by his abilities of voicing on various issues of the company, jobs, their
personal issues, etc.
(c) Assertive:
Assertiveness is confirming one’s own ideas or actions confidently or defending oneself and/or others
through positive arguments, declaring strongly or laying claims. Subordinates like the assertive character
of their boss and mould their job behaviour and performance to his expectations. Mr. Rajiv of Mukand
Industries never counts down on his employees though they commit mistakes.
In fact, he appreciates and defends them publicly. He calls them for discussions privately and makes
them realize their mistakes. Similarly, he also defends himself through arguments, systematic analysis
backed up with reasoning and cause-effect presentations. He attracts and influences his subordinates
through his assertiveness.
2. Agreeableness:
Highly agreeable people are cooperative, warm and trusting, whereas less agreeable people are cold,
disagreeable and antagonistic. Individuals with agreeable traits think from the view- point of their
employees or clients, accept the proposals, needs or requests of the employees. Employees’ job behaviour
and job performance is influenced with such a trait. Individuals with such a trait are good natured,
cooperative and trusting.
Mr. Uday of Kotak Mahindra enters into the shoes of his employees and customers and analyses the
issues and problems from their point of view. Added to this, his positive attitude towards others makes
him to exhibit his trait of accepting the proposals or requests or needs of his subordinates. His
subordinates are influenced positively by his trait of agreeableness.
(a) Good Natured:
Good nature includes respecting the employees’ ideas, views, opinions, values and considering them in
decision-making. Further, it includes involving the employees in decision-making, helping and guiding
them in their work. Good nature of the superiors influence the job behaviour and performance of the
subordinates positively.
Mr. Chowdary of Voltas respects the ideas, values and opinion of each of his subordinates. He encourages
their participation in various activities and involvement in decision-making. They visit the workplace of
his subordinates, offers suggestions, guide them and help them in their work. Employees in Voltas are
influenced by the good nature and treatment given by Mr. Chowdary.
(b) Cooperative:
Cooperative traits regarding attitude and practice of superiors of an organization help the company in
moulding the job behaviour and increasing the job performance.
Mr. Singh of Max India works jointly with his colleagues and subordinates, though; he has an
independent work and independent office. Further, he shares his resources, time and expertise for the
efficient performance of his subordinates and colleagues. Singh’s cooperation in attitude and practice
influenced the job behaviour and performance of Max India to a greater extent through positive
reciprocation of employees.
(c) Trusting:
Trust is worthiness of being relied upon or confidence in the truth of anything. It is resting on the
integrity. Executives with the trait of trusting provide autonomy to the people, enable them to realize
their potentialities and rise to the expectations of their boss. Executives can concentrate on strategic and
policy issues.
Mr. Premji of WIPRO entrusts the work, broadly fixes the targets and gives freedom to the employees
to achieve the targets. He proudly says that his employees achieve targets beyond his expectations. His
employees happily reciprocate that their boss trusts them, which changed their behaviour and enhanced
their performance.
3. Conscientiousness:
Conscientiousness refers to governing or regulating the work activity by conscience. Conscientiousness
is a measure of reliability. Persons with a high level of conscientiousness are reliable, organized,
dependable and persistent; while persons with a low level are easily distracted, disorganised and
unreliable. The conscientiousness trait of the executive changes the job behaviour and enhances the job
performance of the subordinates. The conscientiousness trait includes responsibility, dependability,
persistency and achievement-oriented.
Mr. Rajesh Chowdary, an executive of Bharat Heavy Plates and Vessels Limited (BHPVL) had no real
pressure of work and responsibility to spend longer hours in the company, take risks, exert his energies,
etc. But he worked sincerely beyond the expectations of the organisational culture and his colleagues.
The responsive trait of Mr. Chowdary changed the work culture of his department to a considerable
extent.
(a) Responsible:
Responsible trait is responding readily to discharge one’s own obligations to wards others and the
organisation. The responsible trait of the individuals enables them to take up the work activities with or
without delegation, and makes the superiors to concentrate on policy issues. This process improves the
job performance of the employees and moulds the employee behaviour towards organisational
requirements.
(b) Dependable:
Subordinates commit themselves to organizational goals; take up the responsibility and carryout the
organizational activities that contribute to the strategy even they are not assigned to them. Such
subordinates are dependable. Employees with dependable traits maximize organizational performance.
Thus, the dependable trait of the employees improves their job performance.
Mr. Prakash Singhal of Escorts frequently takes up the work activities of the company depending upon
the situation, without being assigned to him by his boss. His boss feels that Mr. Prakash is dependable
and the work he takes up or which is assigned to him need not be followed up.
(c) Persistent:
Persistent trait refers to the behaviour of rendering the services or doing the work continuously at a
steady pace without any opposition. The persistent trait influences job behaviour and performance.
Mr. John of Dr. Reddy’s Lab reacts to the needs of his subordinates and organisational requirements
continuously, steadily at a fast rate without any opposition. This persistent trait of Mr. John influenced
the behaviour of his subordinates significantly.
(d) Achievement-Oriented:
Employees translate the objectives into achievable goals based on ground realities and conditions and
achieve the goals to a large extent. The achievement oriented trait of employees improves their job
performance and mould the job behaviour of others and shapes work culture.
4. Emotional Stability:
Some executives absorb the actions, reactions, views, feelings, attitudes, outcome of activities, etc., and
maintain stability of their emotions. Consequently, they tend to be calm, self-confident and secure.
People with negative scores tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed and insecure.
5. Openness to Experience:
Executives are expected to be open to new job experiences, learn, absorb and integrate them with their
previous experiences and knowledge. This trait includes imaginative, artistically sensitive, intellectual,
creative and curious people. Those with low level of openness are conventional and go along with the
familiar.
(a) Imaginative:
All the business ventures come into existence only after they cross the stage of imaginative or projective.
In fact all the business activities also cross this stage and as such, all the employees are expected to
possess the imaginative trait. In fact, those who imagine much, achieve much.
(b) Artistically Sensitive:
Employees should be sensitive to all types of changes in the environment and imagination. Employees
with this trait learn much from the environment and use such knowledge for the improvement of the job
performance.
(c) Intellectual:
The intellectual trait enables the individuals to think and analyse rationally and understand
systematically. This trait helps the employee to make efficient decisions and enhance the job behaviour.
Personality is the combination of characteristics, traits, and behaviors that make an individual unique.
Components of Personality
Personality is typically understood through various components or dimensions, each representing different
aspects of an individual's psychological makeup. These components can be broadly categorized as follows:
1. Traits
 Definition: Traits are enduring characteristics that influence an individual’s behavior across different
situations and over time.
 Examples: Traits like extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to
experience are part of the Five Factor Model (Big Five), a widely accepted framework in personality
psychology.
2. Temperament
 Definition: Temperament refers to the innate aspects of personality, such as emotional reactivity and
intensity. It is often viewed as the biological foundation upon which personality is built.
 Examples: A child might be naturally more active, social, or emotionally sensitive, which can
influence their later personality development.
3. Character
 Definition: Character refers to the set of moral and ethical qualities that a person develops over time.
It includes values, beliefs, and attitudes that guide behavior.
 Examples: Honesty, integrity, and responsibility are aspects of character that reflect an individual's
moral compass.
4. Self-Concept
 Definition: Self-concept is how an individual views themselves, including their abilities, identity,
and worth. It plays a crucial role in shaping behavior and interactions with others.
 Examples: A person with high self-esteem may approach challenges with confidence, while
someone with low self-esteem may be more hesitant.
5. Cognitive Processes
  Definition: These are the mental processes involved in thinking, perceiving, and interpreting the
world. They influence how a person understands and responds to their environment.
 Examples: Problem-solving skills, decision-making styles, and attentional focus are all part of
cognitive processes that shape personality.
6. Motivation
 Definition: Motivation refers to the internal drives that direct behavior toward certain goals. It
includes desires, needs, and incentives that energize and guide actions.
 Examples: Achievement motivation, power motivation, and social affiliation are different types of
motivational factors that influence personality.
7. Emotional Patterns
 Definition: Emotional patterns refer to the typical ways an individual experiences and expresses
emotions. This component affects how one reacts to different situations and relationships.
 Examples: A person with a calm and composed emotional pattern might handle stress differently
from someone who is more prone to anxiety or anger.
8. Social Behaviors
 Definition: Social behaviors are the ways individuals interact with others. This component of
personality reflects how one navigates social relationships and group dynamics.
 Examples: Assertiveness, cooperation, empathy, and communication styles are aspects of social
behavior that are key to personality.
9. Values and Beliefs
 Definition: Values and beliefs are the principles and convictions that guide an individual's decisions
and actions. They are deeply rooted and influence one's sense of right and wrong.
 Examples: Cultural values, religious beliefs, and political ideologies are examples of how values and
beliefs shape personality.
10. Identity
 Definition: Identity is a person's sense of self, encompassing personal attributes, roles, and
affiliations. It is central to how individuals perceive themselves and how they want to be perceived
by others. Examples: Gender identity, cultural identity
Significance
1. Influence on Behavior and Decision-Making
 Guides Actions: Personality influences how people behave in different situations. For example, a
highly conscientious person may approach tasks with careful planning, while an extroverted person
may seek social interactions.
 Decision-Making: Personality traits impact decision-making processes, affecting choices in both
personal and professional contexts. For instance, a risk-taker may pursue bold opportunities, while a
cautious person might opt for safer options.
2. Impact on Relationships
 Interpersonal Dynamics: Personality shapes how individuals relate to others, influencing
communication styles, empathy, conflict resolution, and the ability to form and maintain
relationships.
 Compatibility: Understanding personality helps in assessing compatibility in friendships, romantic
relationships, and teamwork, as certain personality traits can complement or clash with others.
3. Personal Growth and Self-Understanding
 Self-Awareness: Knowledge of one's personality promotes self-awareness, helping individuals
understand their strengths, weaknesses, preferences, and values. This self-insight is essential for
personal growth and development.
 Goal Setting: Personality influences goal setting and motivation, determining what drives
individuals and how they pursue their ambitions.
4. Career Success and Job Satisfaction
 Career Choices: Personality traits play a significant role in career choices, as certain jobs may align
better with specific personality types. For example, introverted individuals might prefer roles that
require focused, independent work, while extroverts might thrive in team-oriented environments.
 Job Performance: Personality affects job performance, as traits like conscientiousness,
agreeableness, and emotional stability are often linked to success in various professions.
  Job Satisfaction: A good fit between an individual's personality and their job can lead to higher job
satisfaction, reducing stress and increasing overall well-being.
5. Mental and Emotional Well-Being
 Coping Mechanisms: Personality influences how people cope with stress, adversity, and life
changes. For example, emotionally stable individuals may handle stress more effectively than those
with higher levels of neuroticism.
 Mental Health: Certain personality traits can be linked to mental health outcomes. For example,
high levels of neuroticism may be associated with anxiety and depression, while traits like resilience
and optimism can promote psychological well-being.
6. Social and Cultural Adaptation
 Social Integration: Personality affects how individuals adapt to different social and cultural
environments. Traits like openness to experience can facilitate adaptation to new cultures or
environments.
 Cultural Influence: Culture also shapes personality, as social norms, values, and expectations
influence how personality traits are expressed and perceived in different societies.
7. Leadership and Influence
 Leadership Styles: Personality traits influence leadership styles and effectiveness. For example,
charismatic and assertive individuals may be more inclined to take on leadership roles, while those
who are empathetic and cooperative may excel in team-building.
 Influence on Others: Personality affects the ability to influence and inspire others. Leaders with
strong, positive personalities can motivate teams, foster collaboration, and drive organizational
success.
8. Educational Outcomes
 Learning Styles: Personality impacts how individuals learn and process information. For instance,
an organized and disciplined student may excel in structured learning environments, while a creative
and open-minded student might thrive in more exploratory, self-directed learning.
 Academic Success: Traits like conscientiousness and openness to experience are often linked to
academic success, as they influence study habits, intellectual curiosity, and persistence.

6 theories of personality
The field of personality theories continues to grow and change as more research opportunities arise and
studies are completed.
As research has evolved, so have the theories themselves. Certain theories may have lost some validity, due
to inconclusive research or new findings by experts.
1. Psychodynamic theories
Sigmund Freud Trusted Source laid the foundation for psychodynamic personality theories with his proposal
of the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud saw these three parts of the mind as the basis of human
personality.
According to Freud, these concepts could explain individual behavior.
The id was about your irrational and emotional impulses, while the ego weighed all the rational pros and
cons. The superego then sought to apply social norms, rules, and other personal values that ultimately
encouraged you to act based on your core beliefs.
Later, in the psychosexual personality development part of Freud’s theory, he explained how a person came
to those beliefs and ideals.
Freud thought early childhood experiences played the most important role in how personality developed.
Early life, he said, was defined by five psychosexual stages based on the pleasure sensations in erogenous
zones:
  oral: mouth and sucking reflexes
 anal: bladder and bowel control
 phallic: genitals and gender identification
 latency: sexuality is paused and latent, and gives room to social skills
 genital: mature sexuality and defined sexual interest and orientation
Freud suggested that each stage presented you with a developmental conflict. If you successfully overcame
it, you would move into the next phase of development.
According to Freud’s personality theory, being unable to move past a phase resulted in certain psychological
challenges, like the Oedipus complex, later in life.
Carl Jung and Erik Erikson are other names commonly associated with important work in the field of
psychodynamic theory, although Erikson particularly marked a significant switch from Freud’s theories.
2. Trait theories
Trait theory is one of the most popular types of personality theories. It proposes that people’s personalities
vary according to which basic personality traits are more dominant.
In this sense, each trait is seen as a continuum.
Take kindness, for example. Rather than viewing this as an optional personality trait — some people are
kind while others are not — you can think of it as a sliding scale. Everyone falls somewhere on the kindness
continuum. And you’re either more kind or less kind, compared with someone else.
One of the best-known trait theories is the five-factor theory, also known as the Big 5, proposed by Donald
W. Fiske. This theory states that personality is made up of five distinct traits:
 agreeableness
 conscientiousness
 extraversion
 neuroticism
 openness to experience
Each trait has a range that goes from one extreme to another, and each person falls somewhere along that
range.
Other known trait theories include those developed by Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Hans
Eysenck. Eysenck’s theory, for example, focused on just three trait continuums for everyone: extraversion,
neuroticism, and psychoticism.
3. Humanistic theories
The humanistic approach to theories of personality involves understanding not only behavior and thought
patterns, but also what someone believes gives their life meaning.
Humanistic theories propose that someone’s personality depends heavily on what they think of themselves
— who they believe they are.
Abraham Maslow’s humanistic hierarchy of needs, for example, suggested that personality is the result of
someone being able to meet — or not meet — basic needs like safety, self-esteem, and belongingness.
Carl Rogers explored the concept of self-actualization. This theory asserts that people are driven by their
need for personal growth. The quest for learning and growing is what structures someone’s personality.
4. Social cognitive theories
Social cognitive theories of personality include several schools of thought like behaviorism, social learning
theory, and expectancy-value theory.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism theory proposes that human behavior is the direct result of facing rewards and punishments.
In other words, you’re conditioned to respond a certain way because of a reward-punishment pattern in your
life.
John B. Watson is often credited with pioneering the work in behavior theory, though William Carpenter,
Alexander Bain, and Sigmund Freud also have ties to its early conceptualization, according to 2014
researchTrusted Source.
Social learning theory
Closely related to behaviorism is Albert Bandura’s social learning theory, which takes behavioral models
and adds the component of thought. In other words, the theory proposes that your thought process plays an
essential part in deciding if you should imitate or not a certain behavior (learning).
According to the social learning theory, how you perceive behavioral reinforcement is more important than
the reinforcement itself.
Bandura also believed that environment influences a person’s personality and vice versa.
Being cooperative, for example, might gain you job opportunities. It might also increase the cooperativeness
of those around you — creating an environment of cooperation.
Bandura changed the name of the model from social learning to social cognitive theory in 1986.
3. Expectancy-value theory
Another behaviorism-based model of human personality is Julian Rotter’s framework.
Rotter proposed human behavior is motivated by the expected rewards or punishment it can gain. This
expectation comes from past experiences and whether or not you thought the consequences of your actions
were under your control.
When someone believes they have control over an outcome, they’re more motivated to action. This is
particularly so when they anticipate a positive outcome because similar actions have been rewarded in the
past.
5. Biological theories
Biological personality theories assert that brain structures and neurophysiology are what determine your
personality traits, according to 2016 research.
In other words, something as simple as higher neurotransmitter levels might provide you with a more
positive outlook, for example, than someone else.
6. Evolutionary theories
Charles Darwin first introduced the concepts of evolution and natural selection in the mid-1800s. His work
sparked an entire field of evolutionary biology.
Later, other scientists explored Darwin’s premises to explain human behaviour. According to this
framework of evolutionary theories, human personality is primarily the result of genes and most useful
traits.
Ultimately, evolutionary theory states that personality characteristics that increased your ancestors’ chances
for survival are the traits you may have at the core of your personality today.

People have unique personalities made up of a complex combination of different traits. Personality traits
affect how people understand and relate to the world around them, as well as how they see themselves.
Ideally, people's personality traits allow them to flexibly adapt to their changing environment in ways that
lead to more healthy relationships with others and better coping strategies. When people have personality
traits that are less adaptive, this leads to inflexibility and unhealthy coping. For example, they may manage
stress by drinking or misusing drugs, have a hard time managing their anger, and find it hard to trust and
connect with others.
Personality forms early in life. It is shaped through a blend of your:

 Genes — Your parents may pass down some personality traits to you. Sometimes these traits
are called your temperament.
 Environment — This includes your surroundings, events that have happened to you and
around you, and relationships and patterns of interactions with family members and others.
A personality disorder is a mental health condition where people have a lifelong pattern of seeing
themselves and reacting to others in ways that cause problems. People with personality disorders often have
a hard time understanding emotions and tolerating distress. And they act impulsively. This makes it hard for
them to relate to others, causing serious issues, and affecting their family life, social activities, work and
school performance, and overall quality of life.
Symptoms
In some cases, you may not know that you have a personality disorder. That's because how you think and
behave seems natural to you. You also may think others are responsible for your challenges.
There are many types of personality disorders, each with important differences. These disorders are
organized into three groups, or clusters, with shared features and symptoms:
Group A personality disorders
Group A personality disorders have a consistently dysfunctional pattern of thinking and behavior that
reflects suspicion or lack of interest in others. They include:
Paranoid personality disorder

 Lacks trust and is suspicious of others and the reasons for their actions.
 Believes that others are trying to do harm with no reason to feel this way.
 Doubts the loyalty of others.
 Is not willing to trust others.
 Hesitates to confide in others for fear that others will use that information against them.
 Takes innocent remarks or situations that are not threatening as personal insults or attacks.
 Becomes angry or hostile to what are believed to be slights or insults.
 Has a habit of holding grudges.
 Often suspects that a spouse or sexual partner is unfaithful with no reason to feel this way.
Schizoid personality disorder

 Appears to be cold to or not interested in others.

 Almost always chooses to be alone.
 Is limited in how emotions are expressed.
 Cannot take pleasure in most activities.
 Cannot pick up typical social cues.
 Has little to no interest in having sex with another person.
Schizotypal personality disorder

 Has unusual thinking, beliefs, speech or behavior.

 Feels or thinks strange things, such as hearing a voice whisper their name.
 Has flat emotions or emotional responses that are socially unusual.
  Has social anxiety, including not being comfortable making close connections with others or
not having close relationships.
 Responds to others in ways that are not proper or shows suspicion or lack of interest.
 Has "magical thinking"— the belief that their thoughts can affect other people and events.
 Believes that some casual incidents or events have hidden messages.
Group B personality disorders
Group B personality disorders have a consistently dysfunctional pattern of dramatic, overly emotional
thinking or unpredictable behavior. They include:
Borderline personality disorder

 Has a strong fear of being alone or abandoned.

 Has ongoing feelings of emptiness.
 Sees self as being unstable or weak.
 Has deep relationships that are not stable.
 Has up and down moods, often due to stress when interacting with others.
 Threatens self-harm or behaves in ways that could lead to suicide.
 Is often very angry.
 Shows impulsive and risky behavior, such as having unsafe sex, gambling or binge eating.
 Has stress-related paranoia that comes and goes.
Histrionic personality disorder

 Always seeks attention.

 Is overly emotional or dramatic or stirs up sexual feelings to get attention.
 Speaks dramatically with strong opinions but has few facts or details to back them up.
 Is easily led by others.
 Has shallow emotions that change quickly.
 Is very concerned with physical appearance.
 Thinks relationships with others are closer than they are.
Narcissistic personality disorder

 Has beliefs about being special and more important than others.
 Has fantasies about power, success and being attractive to others.
 Does not understand the needs and feelings of others.
 Stretches the truth about achievements or talents.
 Expects constant praise and wants to be admired.
 Feels superior to others and brags about it.
 Expects favors and advantages without a good reason.
 Often takes advantage of others.
 Is jealous of others or believes that others are jealous of them.
Antisocial personality disorder

 Has little, if any, concern for the needs or feelings of others.

 Often lies, steals, uses false names and cons others.
 Has repeated run-ins with the law.
 Often violates the rights of others.
 Is aggressive and often violent.
 Has little, if any, concern for personal safety or the safety of others.
 Behaves impulsively.
 Is often reckless.
 Has little, if any, regret for how their behavior negatively affects others.
Group C personality disorders
Group C personality disorders have a consistently dysfunctional pattern of anxious thinking or behavior.
They include:
Avoidant personality disorder
  Is very sensitive to criticism or rejection.
 Does not feel good enough, important or attractive.
 Does not take part in work activities that include contact with others.
 Is isolated.
 Does not try new activities and does not like meeting new people.
 Is extremely shy in social settings and in dealing with others.
 Fears disapproval, embarrassment or being made fun of.
Dependent personality disorder

 Relies on others too much and feels the need to be taken care of.
 Is submissive or clingy toward others.
 Fears having to take care of self if left alone.
 Lacks confidence in abilities.
 Needs a lot of advice and comforting from others to make even small decisions.
 Finds it hard to start or do projects due to lack of self-confidence.
 Finds it hard to disagree with others, fearing they will not approve.
 Endures poor treatment or abuse, even when other options are available.
 Has an urgent need to start a new relationship when a close one ends.
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

 Focuses too much on details, orderliness and rules.

 Thinks everything needs to be perfect and gets upset when perfection is not achieved.
 Cannot finish a project because reaching perfection is not possible.
 Needs to be in control of people, tasks and situations.
 Cannot assign tasks to others.
 Ignores friends and enjoyable activities because of too much focus on work or a project.
 Cannot throw away broken or worthless objects.
 Is rigid and stubborn.
 Is not flexible about morality, ethics or values.
 Holds very tight control over budgeting and spending money.
Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is not the same as obsessive-compulsive disorder, which is an
anxiety disorder.
Many people with one type of personality disorder also have symptoms of at least one other type. The
number of symptoms a person has may vary.

Treatment
The treatment that's best for you depends on your personality disorder, how serious it is and your life
situation. Often, a team approach is needed to meet your mental, medical and social needs. You may need to
be treated for months or years.
Your treatment team may include your doctor and a:

 Psychiatrist.
 Psychologist or another therapist.
 Psychiatric nurse.
 Pharmacist.
 Social worker.
Dialectical behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy that also is known as talk therapy, is the main way
to treat personality disorders. Medicines also may be used during treatment.
Dialectical behavioral therapy
Dialectical behavioral therapy (DBT), a form of talk therapy, is used to treat personality disorders. This
therapy focuses on treating dangerous behavior, including behavior that can lead to suicide, as well as
behavior that can get in the way of treatment or affect quality of life.
DBT consists of weekly one-on-one sessions with a therapist. Treatment can last for about a year.
Therapists treating patients using DBT regularly attend a consultation group where they talk about issues
related to treatment. DBT therapists also are available by phone or other means so they can provide coaching
to help make sure that treatment talked about during sessions is applied in real life.
This therapy also includes modules on:

 Controlling your emotions.

 Handling distress.
 Practicing mindfulness.
 Effectively relating with other people.
This therapy has been shown to be effective for adolescents and adults, but a group certified in DBT is
essential.
Medicines
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved any medicines to treat personality disorders
specifically. But several types of psychiatric medicines may help with personality disorder symptoms:

 Antidepressants. Antidepressants may help if you feel depressed, angry, impulsive, irritable or
hopeless. These symptoms may be related to personality disorders.
 Mood stabilizers. These medicines can even out mood swings or reduce how irritable,
impulsive and aggressive you are.
 Antipsychotic medications. These medicines, also called neuroleptics, may help if your
symptoms include losing touch with reality. This is known as psychosis. They also may help
with some anxiety or anger issues.
 Anti-anxiety medications. These medicines may help if you are anxious, agitated or cannot
sleep. But in some cases, they can make you more impulsive. That's why they are not used with
some types of personality disorders.