I. Parts of Microscope (Compound Microscope) II.

Cells (Focus lang sa natackle natin from cheek cells)

➢ the smallest functional units that make up
all living organisms.
❖ Parts & Functions
➢ Nucleus
- control center of the cell,
regulates all cell activities,
including growth, metabolism,
and reproduction.
- where the DNA (genetic material)
is stored
➢ Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
- acts as a protective barrier that
regulates what enters and exits the
cell.
- selectively permeable, meaning it
allows some substances to pass
while blocking others.
➢ Cytoplasm
- jelly-like fluid that fills the cell,
1. Eyepiece (Ocular Lens) - The lens at the top of where organelles are suspended.
the microscope through which you look. It ➢ Mitochondria
typically magnifies the image by 10x. - "powerhouses" of the cell
2. Tube (Body Tube) - The cylindrical part that - generate energy
connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses. It ➢ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
ensures the correct alignment of the optics. - Rough ER: Studded with
3. Nosepiece (Turret) - The rotating part that holds ribosomes and is involved in
the objective lenses. It allows the user to switch protein synthesis and transport.
between different magnifications. - Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes and
4. Objective Lenses - Located on a rotating is involved in lipid synthesis,
nosepiece, these lenses provide varying levels of detoxification, and calcium
magnification (usually 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x). storage.
a. Scanning (4x) ➢ Ribosomes
b. Low Power Objective (10x) - synthesizes proteins by translating
c. High Power Objective (40x) genetic information from the
d. Oil Immersion (100x) nucleus.
5. Coarse Adjustment Knob - The larger knob on ➢ Golgi Apparatus (Golgi Body)
the microscope that moves the stage up and down - It modifies, sorts, and packages
for rough focusing of the image, typically used proteins and lipids for transport
with lower magnifications (4x or 10x objectives). either inside or outside of the cell.
6. Fine Adjustment Knob - The smaller knob is ➢ Lysosomes
used for precise focusing, especially with higher - cell's cleanup crew.
magnification objectives (40x or 100x). - contain digestive enzymes that
7. Stage - Some microscopes have a mechanical break down waste materials, old
stage with controls to move the slide precisely in cell parts, and foreign invaders
horizontal and vertical directions without using like bacteria.
your hands. ➢ Cytoskeleton
8. Stage Clips - Clips on the stage that hold the - provides structural support for the
microscope slide securely in position. cell, helping it maintain its shape,
9. Condenser - Positioned beneath the stage and and aids in cell movement and
above the light source, the condenser focuses light division.
onto the specimen. It helps improve image ➢ Centrosomes and Centrioles
sharpness by concentrating light. - Play a crucial role in cell division
10. Mirror - used to direct light onto the specimen. by helping to organize the spindle
11. Arm - The part of the microscope that connects fibers that separate chromosomes.
the base to the head and eyepiece. It provides ➢ Vesicles and Vacuoles
support and is used to carry the microscope - Vesicles are small
12. Inclination Joint - the location at which the membrane-bound sacs that
microscope arm connects to the microscope base transport materials within the cell
13. Base - The bottom part of the microscope that or to the cell membrane for
provides stability and houses either the light export.
source or mirror. - Vacuoles are larger sacs that store
substances such as water,
nutrients, and waste. In plant
cells, the central vacuole also
 helps maintain turgor pressure for ➢ Eukaryotic Cells:
structure. - Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a
➢ Chloroplasts (In Plant Cells Only) nucleus.
- sites of photosynthesis, where - Eukaryotic cells are usually larger than
light energy is converted into prokaryotic cells, and they are found
chemical energy (sugars) using mainly in multicellular organisms.
sunlight, water, and carbon - Organisms with eukaryotic cells are called
dioxide. eukaryotes, and they range from fungi to
➢ Cell Wall (In Plant Cells, Fungi, and people.
Some Protists) - Eukaryotic cells also contain other
- Provides additional support and organelles besides the nucleus.
protection for the cell, especially - An organelle is a structure within the
in plant cells, and helps maintain cytoplasm that performs a specific job in
its shape. the cell.
- Organelles allow eukaryotic cells to carry
out more functions than prokaryotic cells
can.

Viruses: Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes? NEITHER

- tiny particles that may cause disease.
- not cells at all (neither prokaryotes nor
eukaryotes).
- contain DNA but not much else.
- Viruses cannot reproduce by themselves, instead,
they infect living hosts and use the hosts’ cells to
make copies of their DNA.
Types of Cells: (Earnshaw, W. et al., 2022)
➢ Prokaryotic Cells: LAB REPORT 2: HUMAN CHEEK CELLS
- Prokaryotic cells are cells without a ❖ Human Cheek Epithelial Cells
nucleus. ➢ Type of tissue: Human cheek cells are
- The DNA in prokaryotic cells is in the squamous epithelial cells, which form the
cytoplasm rather than enclosed within a lining of the mouth. They are flat, thin
nuclear membrane. cells that are easy to collect and observe.
- Prokaryotic cells are found in ➢ Structure: These cells lack a cell wall
single-celled organisms, such as bacteria. (found in plant cells) but have a cell
- Organisms with prokaryotic cells are membrane that maintains their shape. The
called prokaryotes. nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane
are the primary structures observed in this
experiment.
➢ Function: Epithelial cells provide a
protective barrier and are involved in
absorption and secretion functions in the
body.
❖ Glycerin
➢ Role in the experiment: Glycerin is used
in the slide preparation to prevent the
cheek cells from drying out. It also helps
by reducing light reflection, providing a
clearer view of the cell structures under
the microscope.
 ➢ Properties: Glycerin acts as a ■ In single-celled - movement
preservative and refractive medium that ■ In multicellular - other functions
ensures the cells stay intact during ● Ex. Human Lungs - cilia
observation. sweeps foreign particles
❖ Methylene Blue particles and mucus
➢ Purpose: Methylene blue is a biological
stain that binds to acidic cell components, IV. Passive & Active Transport
especially the nucleus, making it more ❖ Passive Transport: Substances cross the plasma
visible under the microscope. membrane without any input of energy from the
➢ Staining function: It enhances the cell. Substances always move from an area of
contrast between different parts of the higher concentration to a lower concentration.
cell, particularly highlighting the nucleus ➢ Concentration refers to the number of
as dark blue and the cytoplasm as a lighter particles of a substance per unit of
blue. This staining makes it easier to volume.
distinguish the internal cell structures. ❖ Diffusion: is the movement of a substance across
a membrane, due to a difference in concentration,
III. Within the Plasma Membrane: Phospholipid without any help from other molecules.
Bilayer Substances affected by simple diffusion are
➢ Phospholipids generally very small, hydrophobic molecules,
- The plasma membrane is composed such as molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
mainly of phospholipids, which consist ❖ Osmosis: is a special type of diffusion — the
of fatty acids and alcohol. diffusion of water molecules across a membrane.
➢ Phospholipid Bilayer ❖ Facilitated Diffusion: occurs in hydrophilic
- The phospholipids in the plasma molecules, charged ions, and relatively large
membrane are arranged in two layers, molecules, such as glucose. Diffusion with the
called a phospholipid bilayer. help of transport proteins is called facilitated
- each phospholipid molecule has a head diffusion.
and two tails. ➢ Transport Proteins
- The head “loves” water (hydrophilic) and; ■ Channel proteins - form pores,
- The tails “hate” water (hydrophobic). or tiny holes, in the membrane.
This allows water molecules and
small ions to pass through the
membrane without coming into
contact with the hydrophobic tails
of the lipid molecules in the
interior of the membrane.
■ Carrier proteins - bind with
specific ions or molecules, and in
doing so, they change shape. As
carrier proteins change shape,
they carry the ions or molecules
across the membrane.
❖ Active Transport: The movement of substances
against their concentration gradient, which
requires energy in the form of ATP.
❖ Sodium-Potassium Pump: A type of active
transport protein that moves sodium ions out of
the cell and potassium ions into the cell, both
against their concentration gradients.
❖ Endocytosis: The process of taking large
molecules into the cell by engulfing them in a
vesicle. There are two main types of endocytosis:
phagocytosis (cell eating) and pinocytosis (cell
drinking).
❖ Exocytosis: The process of expelling large
molecules out of the cell by fusing a vesicle with
the plasma membrane.
❖ Other Molecules in the Plasma Membrane
❖ Homeostasis: The plasma membrane plays a
➢ Lipids
crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by
■ Cholesterol - keeps membrane
regulating the movement of substances into and
shape.
out of the cell. It ensures that the internal
➢ Protein
environment of the cell remains stable despite
- Assists other substances in
changes in the external environment.
crossing membranes.
❖ Extensions of the Plasma Membrane
➢ whip-like flagella or brush-like cilia
LAB REPORT 3: DIFFUSION ON JELLO (glucose) needed for plant growth and is the
❖ Diffusion: is a passive process where molecules source of oxygen for all aerobic organisms.
move from an area of high concentration to low LAB REPORT 4: FLOATING LEAF DISKS ASSAY
concentration without the need for energy. ❖ Photosynthesis Process
❖ Biological Relevance: It is a fundamental process ➢ Expected Outcome: The leaf disks in the
in biological systems, such as oxygen diffusing cup containing baking soda should float
from blood into cells. over time due to the production of oxygen
❖ Methylene Blue Diffusion Experiment during photosynthesis. This is because the
➢ Objective: To observe how methylene baking soda supplies additional CO₂,
blue dye diffuses through a gelatin which is a key reactant in the process.
medium over time. ➢ Observation: Leaf disks in the setup with
➢ Setup: The experiment was conducted baking soda will begin to float as oxygen
with gelatin in petri dishes at room is released, while disks in the setup
temperature and in a cold bath to compare without baking soda (CO₂ absent) will not
the rate of diffusion under different float, as photosynthesis cannot occur
conditions. without sufficient CO₂.
➢ Procedure: A small hole was made in the ❖ Role of Baking Soda (CO₂ Source)
gelatin, and methylene blue was ➢ Expected Outcome: The solution with
introduced. The spread of the dye was baking soda will enable photosynthesis,
measured at intervals to track diffusion. leading to the floating of leaf disks. In
❖ Temperature’s Effect on Diffusion contrast, the solution without baking soda
➢ Room Temperature: Methylene blue will result in no floating disks, as
diffused faster, as higher temperatures photosynthesis will not be triggered due to
increased molecular kinetic energy, a lack of CO₂.
leading to quicker spread. ❖ Oxygen Production
➢ Cold Bath: Diffusion was slower due to ➢ Expected Outcome: As photosynthesis
reduced molecular movement at lower progresses, oxygen produced within the
temperatures. leaf disks will accumulate, causing them
➢ Temperature significantly affects diffusion to float. The presence of bubbles around
rates, with higher temperatures the disks will further indicate oxygen
enhancing molecular movement and production.
lower temperatures slowing it down. ❖ Light's Role in Photosynthesis
➢ Expected Outcome: The time taken for
V. Photosynthesis the leaf disks to float will depend on the
❖ Photosynthesis Definition: the process by which light intensity provided. Inadequate light
plants, algae, and some bacteria use the energy may delay the floating time, but
from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water eventually, in the presence of light, the
into glucose and oxygen. This process occurs in leaf disks with access to CO₂ should float.
the chloroplasts of plant cells. ➢ Delays in the floating times were
❖ Key Components of Photosynthesis attributed to the light intensity, suggesting
➢ Chloroplasts: Organelles found in the that stronger light might be needed to
leaves of green plants where trigger faster photosynthesis.
photosynthesis takes place.
➢ Chlorophyll: The green pigment in VI. Cellular Respiration
chloroplasts that absorbs light, reflecting ❖ Cellular Respiration Definition: the process by
green and yellow wavelengths. which cells break down glucose and other organic
molecules to produce ATP, the main energy
❖ Photosynthesis Chemical Equation: currency of the cell. It occurs in both plant and
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 animal cells, primarily in the mitochondria.
❖ Cellular Respiration Chemical Equation:
❖ Stages of Photosynthesis C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
➢ Light-Dependent Reactions: These (ATP)
occur in the thylakoid membranes of the ❖ Stages of Cellular Respiration
chloroplasts. Light energy is used to split ➢ Glycolysis: The first stage of cellular
water molecules, producing oxygen, ATP, respiration, occurring in the cytoplasm.
and NADPH. Glucose is split into two molecules of
➢ Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent pyruvate, producing 2 ATP molecules.
Reactions): These occur in the stroma of This process does not require oxygen
the chloroplasts. The ATP and NADPH (anaerobic).
produced in the light-dependent reactions ➢ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle): This
are used to fix carbon dioxide and occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria.
produce glucose. Pyruvate is further broken down,
❖ Importance of Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis producing carbon dioxide, ATP, NADH,
provides the energy and organic compounds and FADH2.
 ➢ Electron Transport Chain (ETC): This ❖ Chromosomes: Coiled structures made of DNA
occurs in the inner mitochondrial and proteins, present during cell division.
membrane. Electrons from NADH and ➢ Sister Chromatids: Identical copies of a
FADH2 are passed along a series of chromosome, connected by a centromere.
proteins, releasing energy used to produce ➢ Homologous Chromosomes: Pairs of
ATP. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor chromosomes (one from each parent) in
and combines with hydrogen to form human cells; 23 pairs total.
water. The ETC produces the majority of ➢ Genes: Units of genetic instructions on
ATP in cellular respiration (~36 ATP per chromosomes, coding for proteins.
glucose molecule). ❖ Mitosis: involves the division of a eukaryotic
❖ Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation): When cell’s nucleus and cytoplasm into two identical
oxygen is not available, cells can undergo daughter cells.
anaerobic respiration. In this process, glucose is ❖ Meiosis: A type of cell division producing haploid
broken down through fermentation to produce gametes (sperm and eggs), reducing chromosome
energy. number by half.
➢ Lactic Acid Fermentation: Occurs in ➢ Two divisions: Meiosis I (separates
animal cells, where pyruvate is converted homologous chromosomes) and Meiosis
into lactic acid. This happens during II (separates sister chromatids).
intense exercise when oxygen is depleted. ➢ Produces four unique haploid cells.
➢ Alcoholic Fermentation: Occurs in yeast ❖ Cytokinesis: occurs after telophase, where the
and some bacteria, where pyruvate is cytoplasm divides, creating two genetically
converted into ethanol and carbon identical daughter cells.
dioxide. ❖ Phases of Mitosis & Meiosis:
❖ Total ATP Yield ❖ Mitosis/Meiosis I:
➢ Aerobic respiration produces a total of ➢ Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes
approximately 36-38 ATP molecules per pair up.
glucose molecule, while anaerobic ➢ Metaphase I: Paired chromosomes align
respiration produces only 2 ATP per at the cell equator.
glucose. ➢ Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes
LAB REPORT 5: CELL ENERGY REPRODUCTION separate.
❖ Cellular Respiration: The process where glucose ➢ Telophase I: Two haploid cells form.
(C₆H₁₂O₆) from food is broken down to produce * Mitosis stops here
energy in the form of ATP (adenosine ❖ Meiosis II:
triphosphate). In the context of this experiment, ➢ Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II,
the focus is on aerobic respiration, which occurs Telophase II: Similar to mitosis but
in the presence of oxygen and produces carbon results in four haploid cells.
dioxide (CO₂) as a by-product.
❖ Use of phenolphthalein: A pH indicator added to
water to observe changes in acidity or basicity.
❖ Introduction of calcium hydroxide: When lime
water (calcium hydroxide) was added, the solution
turned pink, indicating a basic pH.
❖ Blowing into the solution: By blowing air
(containing CO₂ from exhalation) into the
solution, CO₂ reacted with calcium hydroxide,
leading to the formation of calcium carbonate
(CaCO₃), causing the solution to turn colorless.
❖ Color change: The solution turning colorless
indicated that the CO₂ produced during aerobic
cellular respiration had neutralized the basic
solution.
❖ Conclusion: The experiment demonstrated that VIII. Tissues
CO₂ is a by-product of aerobic respiration, ❖ Epithelial Tissues:
confirming the occurrence of cellular respiration ➢ Simple Squamous Epithelium:
through the color change in the solution. - Thin, flat cells arranged in a
single layer.
VII. Cell Cycle - Allows for efficient diffusion and
❖ Cell Cycle: The cell cycle consists of growth, filtration.
DNA synthesis, and cell division. - Found in tissues such as lungs and
➢ Eukaryotic cell cycle phases: G1 blood vessels.
(Growth Phase 1), S (Synthesis Phase), ➢ Simple Cuboidal Epithelium:
G2 (Growth Phase 2), and M (Mitosis). - Cube-shaped cells adapted for
❖ Cancer: Caused by unregulated cell division, secretion and absorption.
often due to DNA damage, resulting in tumors. - Common in glands and ducts,
including kidneys.
 ➢ Simple Columnar Epithelium: 1. Skull (Cranium)
- Tall, rectangular cells specialized 2. Zygomatic Bone
for absorption and secretion. 3. Maxilla
- Found in the digestive tract, 4. Mandible
where goblet cells secrete mucus 5. Clavicle
for protection. 6. Scapula
➢ Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar 7. Sternum
Epithelium: 8. Humerus
- Appears stratified but is a single 9. Costal cartilage
layer of cells with cilia. 10. Lumbar vertebrae
- Functions in moving particles, 11. Radius
particularly in the respiratory 12. Pelvis
tract, clearing mucus and debris. 13. Ulna
➢ Stratified Squamous Epithelium: 14. Carpals
- Multiple layers of flat cells 15. Metacarpals
providing protection. 16. Phalanges
- Suited for areas subject to 17. Femur
friction, such as skin and the 18. Patella
mouth, acting as a durable barrier. 19. Tibia
❖ Connective Tissues: 20. Fibula
➢ Areolar Connective Tissue: 21. Tarsals
- Loose arrangement of fibers and 22. Metatarsals
cells. 23. Phalanges
- Provides flexibility and support,
binds tissues, and allows
movement beneath epithelial Try these references:
layers. Lab Rep 2: Human Cheek Cell
➢ Reticular Tissue: https://youtu.be/TxB_Hj1BufM?si=duyK4SchWyPBd1Z0
- Fine network of fibers supporting Lab Rep 3: Diffusion Agar
soft organs like the liver and https://youtu.be/muUSY1RanUc?si=xEPGBE0Dx2MT
spleen. --Proof that Temperature affects Diffusion
- Facilitates immune functions and https://youtu.be/uyg1sa0HxPA?si=w3ymiGKpBI0M3-5b
filtration. Lab Rep 4: Floating Leaf Disks Assay
➢ Adipose Tissue: https://youtu.be/arFCjcCrb7E?si=p28VPBQr7Xp2NsZ7
- Large fat-storing cells. Lab Rep 5: Cell Energy Production
- Key for energy storage, https://youtu.be/bkiJ3xzYnY8?si=Ab0jFPeHdyv3vuId
insulation, and cushioning, Lab Rep 6: Onion Root Tip Cell Cycle
reflecting its role in metabolism https://youtu.be/h8j_yJ0ph2A?si=AmMl9pFBCW83mhq1
and protection. Lab Rep 7: Tissues
--Epithelial:
IX. The Skeleton https://youtu.be/avRGUka9wu4?si=OWhFpRGsgK0mJ7p
v
https://youtu.be/reoEVXvoUmI?si=E-wOHFfdp9GynmB
Q
--Connective:
https://youtu.be/dnEQD-G8o9M?si=SHnAVfMNt3zA5dr
m
--Simple Squamous vs. Adipose (To avoid Confusion)
https://youtu.be/PKRW2WEIUWQ?si=S3-m2ojQKtJEEik
b
--Muscles
https://youtu.be/FI3-28tdovk?si=Zu3rUZJ9fANjsa7t