Modern Physics

Relation b/w group velocity and particle velocity (Relativistic method)

Consider a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v. The group velocity is given by,

dω
vg =
dk
We know that,

E mc2
ω = 2πν = 2π = 2π
h h
E
where, ν = h and E = mc2
 
2πc2
 
ω=  q m0 
h 1− v2
c2

where, m = q m0
2
1− v2
c
Differentiating we get,
" − 32  #
2πm0 c2 v2
 
dω 1 −2v
= − 1− 2
dv h 2 c c
− 32
v2
 
dω 2πm0 v
= 1− 2 − − − (1)
dv h c
Also, we know that,
 
 
2π 2πp 2πmv 2π m
q 0 v
k= = = = 
λ h h h 2
1 − vc2

where, λ = hp and p = mv
Differentiating we get,
 " − 12 "    − 32  ##
v2 v2

dk 2πm0 1 −2v
= 1− 2 + v − 1− 2
dv h c 2 c c2
Simplifying, we get,
− 32
v2
 
dk 2πm0
= 1− 2 − − − (2)
dv h c
From equation (1) and (2), we have,

 − 3
2πm0 v v2 2
dω dω/dv h 1− c2
vg = = = − 3 = v
dk dk/dv 2πm0

 v2 2
h 1− c2

This is the relation b/w group velocity and particle velocity.

1
Expression for de-Broglie wavelength using group velocity
According to de-Broglie, a material particle in motion is associated with a system of plane
waves. The superposition of which giverise to a wave packet. In such a wave motion, the
group velocity is given by,

dω
vg = − − − (1)
dk
we know that, ω = 2πν and k = 2π λ
Differentiating the above equations, we get

dω = 2πdν
and
 
1
dk = 2πd
λ
Substituting dω and dk in equation (1), we get

2πdν
vg =
− − − (2)
2πd λ1
Since the particle velocity is equal to the group velocity, then the above equation be-
comes,

dν
vp = 1


d λ
or
 
1 dν
d = − − − (3)
λ vp
Let m be the mass of the particle, v be its velocity. If V is the potential energy of the
particle, then the total energy E is given by,
1
E = mv 2 + V − − − (a)
2
But, we know that, E = hν − − − (b) where, ν is the frequency of the wave associated
with the particle and h is the panck’s constant. From equations (a) and (b), we get
1
hν = mv 2 + V − − − (4)
2
Let the particle be moving under a constant electric potential V , i.e., V is a constant.
Differentiating equation (4), we get
1
hdν = m2vdv
2
m
dν = vdv − − − (5)
h
Substituting dν in equation (3), we get

2
  
1 m vdv
d =
λ h v
 
1 m
d = dv
λ h
Integrating the above equation we get,
1 m
= v + Constant(C)
λ h
where C is a constant of integration and is equal to zero. Therefore,
1 mv
=
λ h
1 p
=
λ h
or

h
λ=
p

Characteristic properties of matter waves

ˆ Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves in nature.

ˆ Matter waves associated with moving particles such as charged and neutral particles.

ˆ The velocity of the matter waves depends on the velocity of the material particle.

ˆ The phase velocity is different for different matter waves, depending on mass and
velocity of the particle.

ˆ The amplitude of matter waves at a particular region and time depends on the prob-
ability of finding the particle at the same region and time.

ˆ The wavelength of the matter wave is given by λ = hp .

c2
ˆ The wave velocity or phase velocity of the matter waves is given by, vp = vg

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and its physical significance

Statement:
It is impossible to determine both position and momentum of a particle simultaneously
and accurately. The product of uncertainities involved in the determination of position and
h
momentum simultaneously is greater or equal to 4π .

3
Explanation:
If ∆x is error (uncertainty) involved in the measurement of position and ∆p is the error
involved in the measurement of momentum, then according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle,

h
∆x · ∆p ≥
4π
The product of the errors is of the order of planck’s constant. If one quantity is mea-
sured with high accuracy, then the simultaneous measurement of the other quantity be less
accurate.

Physical significance:
According to classical mechanics, if we know the position and momentum of a particle at
some instant of time, its position and momentum at any later instant of time can be deter-
mined accurately. But according to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, if we try to measure
position accurately, error in the measurement of momentum increases and viceversa. Thus,
in quantum mechanics there is no place for the word exactness, and is replaced by the word
probability. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle implies that an event, which is impossible
to occur according to classical physics, has finite probability of occurrence according to
quantum mechanics.
The uncertainty priciple also restricts the precision in the measurement of the particle
energy. If E is the energy of a quantum system at time t, then the uncertainty ∆E and ∆t
are related by the equation,

h
∆E · ∆t ≥
4π
Similarly, in terms of angular momentum L and angular displacement θ, we have,

h
∆L · ∆θ ≥
4π

Diffraction by single slit:

Consider a narrow beam of electrons passes through a single slit and produces a diffraction
pattern on the screen (as shown in figure). The first minimum of the pattern is given by,

∆y sin θ = λ
or

4
 λ
∆y = · · · · · · · (1)
sin θ
Where, ∆y is the width of the slit and θ is the angle of diffraction corresponding to first
minimum. Initially, the electrons are moving along the x−axis and hence no momentum
component along y−axis. After diffraction at the slit, electrons deviated from their intial
path to form the pattern and have a momentum component p sin θ. Hence, net uncertainty
in y−component is given by,

∆py ≈ 2p sin θ
or

2h sin θ
∆py ≈ · · · · · · · (2)
λ
From equation (1) and (2), we have

λ 2h sin θ
∆y × ∆py ≈ ×
sin θ λ

∆y × ∆py ≈ 2h

Application of Uncertainty principle- Non existing of electron in the nucleus:

If the electrons were to be in nucleus, the maximum uncertainty ∆x should not exceed the
size of the nucleus. If the radius of the nucleus is of the order of 5 × 10−15 m, then its
uncertainty in the momentum is given by,

h
∆px ≥
4π∆x
6.625 × 10−34
∆px ≥
4 × 3.14 × 5 × 10−15

∆px ≥ 1.0549 × 10−20 kgms−1

Then, minimum energy that electron should have in order to exist inside the nucleus
can be calculated using the formula,

E 2 = c2 [p2 + m20 c2 ]

E 2 = (3 × 108 )2 [(1.0549 × 10−20 )2 + (9.1 × 10−31 )2 (3 × 108 )2 ]

Where, p is the momentum of the electron and c is the velocity of the light. Substituting
the calculating, we get

E ≥ 20.6M eV
It implies that, if an electron exist inside the nucleus it must have a minimum energy of
about 20.6M eV . But experimental investigation of β−decay reveal that kinetic energy of
the β−particle is of the order of 3 − 4M eV . Therefore, this clearly indicate that electron
cannot exist inside the nucleus.