2.2.1.3.
4 Adverbs
2.2.1.3.4.1 The two adverb inflectional suffixes in English are:
c The adverb comparative morpheme {–er1}: fast–er, hard–er, etc.
d The adverb superlative morpheme {–est 1}: fast–est, hard–est, etc.
2.2.1.3.4.2 Adverbs are identified not only by inflectional
morphemes but also by the adverb-forming derivational suffix {–ly1}4
added to adjectives: just → justly, beautiful→ beautifully, etc.
2.2.2 English positional classes
According to Stageberg [1965: 196-219], the four positional classes
in English are the nominal, the verbal, the adjectival and the adverbial.
2.2.2.1 “Any word, whatever its form-class (noun, verb,
comparable, pronoun, uninflected word) will be tabbed a nominal if it
occupies one of the seven noun positions” [Stageberg,1965:196] listed below:
1. The position of the subject:
- Upstairs IS the safest hiding place.
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“In the word-stock of English there are many uninflected words often employed
in the adverbial positions:
1. Uninflected words used both as adverbials and prepositions: above, about,
after, around, before, behind, below, down, in, inside, on, out, outside, since, to,
under, up.
2. “-ward” series, with optional –s: afterward, backward, downward, forward,
homeward, inward, northward, outward, upward, windward.
3. “Here” series: here, herein, hereby, heretofore, hereafter.
4. “There” series: there, therein, thereby, theretofore, thereafter.
5. “-where” series: anywhere, everywhere, somewhere, nowhere.
6. “-ways” series: crossways, sideways; also, anyway.
7. “-time” series: meantime, sometime, anytime, sometimes.
8. Miscellaneous: today, tonight, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, seldom, still,
yet, already, meanwhile, also, too, never, not, forth, thus, sidelong, headlong, maybe,
perhaps, instead, indeed, henceforth, piecemeal, nevertheless, downstairs, indoors,
outdoors, offhand, overseas, unawares, besides, furthermore, always.” [Stageberg,
1965:215]
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- For Glenda to steal the diamond WOULD BE a shame.
2. The position of the direct object:
I HATE telling lies.
I WANT to think critically.
3. The position of the indirect object:
She GAVE whomever she met different offers.
She GAVE nobody a hand shake.
4. The position of the retained object:
We WERE GIVEN the thinnest.
5. The position of the subject(ive) complement:
This book IS hers.
My favorite pastime IS swimming.
6. The position of the object(ive) complement:
You’VE MADE me what I am.
They NAMED the little dog Neky.
7. The position of the complement of a preposition:
He IS interested in nothing.
The elevator has been used for many years without being repaired.
2.2.2.2 “Verbals are those forms that occupy the verb
positions … They come after the opening noun or noun phrase … There are
four verbals in
She must have been loafing last week
and two in
I should leave the house in ten minutes.
Also, any verb form taking a subject or a complement (OV, SC,
or Adj) or modified by an adverbial is a verbal, regardless of its position.
1. Becoming angry, she broke the dish.
2. Being a minister, Prentice spoke softly.
3. After having eaten the turnips, Prentice tried to look satisfied.
4. The light having gone out, we lighted candles.
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5. Giving to the poor is a Christian virtue.” [Stageberg, 1965: 201]
2.2.2.3 “Adjectivals, like nominals, occupy certain
characteristic sentence positions.” [Stageberg, 1965: 206]
1. The position between the determiner and the noun:
That joyful/college/laughing/recommended freshman is bright.
2. The position right after the noun:
The fellow waving drives a convertible.
3. The position right after an intensive verb: He always remains quiet.
4. The position right after the direct object of a complex transitive
verb: The management considered him competent.
“In other positions let us say that any adjective or adjective
substitute is an adjectival, unless it is in a nominal or adverbial slot”.
[Stageberg, 1965: 210]
Angry and upset, the applicant slammed the door.
2.2.2.4 Adverbials are the word groups as well as the single
words that occupy the adverb positions and perform the adverb
functions. Common adverbial positions are:
2.2.2.4.1 Initial position: The adverbial is in the first position in
the clause with or without juncture, occurring before the subject or other
obligatory elements of the clause:
(1)a. Really, you SHOULD KNOW better.
b. Now it IS time to go.
c. With a sharp ax you CAN DO wonder.
d. By using a little red here, you CAN BALANCE your colors.
e. Unless you FOLLOW the printed directions,
the set WILL NOT FIT properly together.
2.2.2.4.2 Medial position: This includes all positions between
obligatory initial and final clausal elements. Several more specific
positions can be distinguished:
c Between the subject and the beginning of the verb phrase:
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(2)a. She actually EXPECTS to marry him.
b. Mary in her own way WAS a darling.
c. The environment secretary yesterday MOVED
to mitigate the effects of the inland revenue revaluation.
d After THE MODAL/FIRST AUXILIARY VERB and before THE LEXICAL VERB:
(2)d. He WOULD seldom MAKE effort.
e. You MAY in this way BE of great assistance.
f. Carrie HAD often DREAMED about coming back.
g. The utilization of computers IS not of course LIMITED to business.
e After THE LEXICAL VERB but preceding other obligatory elements of
the clause.
(2)h. It IS still three weeks away.
i. It IS no longer a casino.
j. He IS always/at any event happy.
k. He IS certainly/without doubt an expert.
l. She IS cleverly with her clients.
2.2.2.4.3 Final position: Sentence-finally, the adverbial can be
placed:
c After THE LEXICAL VERB, especially after AN INTRANSITIVE ONE.
(2)m. He LIVES independently/in the fast lane.
n. He DIED last night.
o. He DROVE recklessly/with abandon.
d After all obligatory elements, i.e. the indirect object, the direct object,
the subjective complement, or the objective complement, of THE LEXICAL
VERB (though it may not be the last element if there are other final
adverbials in the same clause):
(3)a. Tom WAS a doctor for many years.
b. Tom WILL PLAY football tomorrow.
c. Tom SENT a telegraph to his wife yesterday morning.
d. Tom PUT his watch where he can find it in the dark.
e. Tom BELIEVED the man crazy after questioning him.
