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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Earthquake (disambiguation).
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Earthquake epicenters occur mostly along
tectonic plate boundaries, especially on the Pacific Ring of Fire.
Global plate tectonic movement
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An earthquake – also called a quake, tremor, or temblor – is the shaking of
the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that
creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those so weak they
cannot be felt, to those violent enough to propel objects and people into the air,
damage critical infrastructure, and wreak destruction across entire cities.
The seismic activity of an area is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes
experienced over a particular time. The seismicity at a particular location in the Earth
is the average rate of seismic energy release per unit volume.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic
event that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes can occur naturally or be induced
by human activities, such as mining, fracking, and nuclear tests. The initial point of
rupture is called the hypocenter or focus, while the ground level directly above it is
the epicenter. Earthquakes are primarily caused by geological faults, but also
by volcanic activity, landslides, and other seismic events. The frequency, type, and
size of earthquakes in an area define its seismic activity, reflecting the average rate
of seismic energy release.
Significant historical earthquakes include the 1556 Shaanxi earthquake in China,
with over 830,000 fatalities, and the 1960 Valdivia earthquake in Chile, the largest
ever recorded at 9.5 magnitude. Earthquakes result in various effects, such as
ground shaking and soil liquefaction, leading to significant damage and loss of life.
When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be
displaced sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can trigger landslides.
Earthquakes' occurrence is influenced by tectonic movements along faults, including
normal, reverse (thrust), and strike-slip faults, with energy release and rupture
dynamics governed by the elastic-rebound theory.
Efforts to manage earthquake risks involve prediction, forecasting, and
preparedness, including seismic retrofitting and earthquake engineering to design
structures that withstand shaking. The cultural impact of earthquakes spans myths,
religious beliefs, and modern media, reflecting their profound influence on human
societies. Similar seismic phenomena, known as marsquakes and moonquakes,
have been observed on other celestial bodies, indicating the universality of such
events beyond Earth.
Terminology
An earthquake is the shaking of the surface of Earth resulting from a sudden release
of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes may also be
referred to as quakes, tremors, or temblors. The word tremor is also used for non-
earthquake seismic rumbling.
In its most general sense, an earthquake is any seismic event—whether natural or
caused by humans—that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly
by the rupture of geological faults but also by other events such as volcanic activity,
landslides, mine blasts, fracking and nuclear tests. An earthquake's point of initial
rupture is called its hypocenter or focus. The epicenter is the point at ground level
directly above the hypocenter.
The seismic activity of an area is the frequency, type, and size of earthquakes
experienced over a particular time. The seismicity at a particular location in the Earth
is the average rate of seismic energy release per unit volume.
Major examples
Main article: Lists of earthquakes
Earthquakes (M6.0+) since
1900 through 2017
Earthquakes of magnitude 8.0 and greater from 1900 to 2018. The apparent 3D
volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to their respective fatalities.[1]
One of the most devastating earthquakes in recorded history was the 1556 Shaanxi
earthquake, which occurred on 23 January 1556 in Shaanxi, China. More than
830,000 people died.[2] Most houses in the area were yaodongs—dwellings carved
out of loess hillsides—and many victims were killed when these structures collapsed.
The 1976 Tangshan earthquake, which killed between 240,000 and 655,000 people,
was the deadliest of the 20th century.[3]
The 1960 Chilean earthquake is the largest earthquake that has been measured on
a seismograph, reaching 9.5 magnitude on 22 May 1960.[4][5] Its epicenter was near
Cañete, Chile. The energy released was approximately twice that of the next most
powerful earthquake, the Good Friday earthquake (27 March 1964), which was
centered in Prince William Sound, Alaska.[6][7] The ten largest recorded earthquakes
have all been megathrust earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the 2004 Indian
Ocean earthquake is simultaneously one of the deadliest earthquakes in history.
Earthquakes that caused the greatest loss of life, while powerful, were deadly
because of their proximity to either heavily populated areas or the ocean, where
earthquakes often create tsunamis that can devastate communities thousands of
kilometers away. Regions most at risk for great loss of life include those where
earthquakes are relatively rare but powerful, and poor regions with lax, unenforced,
or nonexistent seismic building codes.
Occurrence
Three types of faults:
A. Strike-slip
B. Normal
C. Reverse
Tectonic earthquakes occur anywhere on the earth where there is sufficient stored
elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. The sides of a
fault move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no
irregularities or asperities along the fault surface that increases the frictional
resistance. Most fault surfaces do have such asperities, which leads to a form
of stick-slip behavior. Once the fault has locked, continued relative motion between
the plates leads to increasing stress and, therefore, stored strain energy in the
volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently
to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the
fault, releasing the stored energy.[8] This energy is released as a combination of
radiated elastic strain seismic waves,[9] frictional heating of the fault surface, and
cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of
strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to
as the elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an
earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's
energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat
generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic
potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible
compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep
interior.[10]
Fault types
