UNIT II

AUTOMATED FLOW LINES

Objective:

 To understand the different automated flow lines in the Industries.

Outcome:
 Students will get exposure to workstation, which refers to the location in the factory where some
well-defined task or operation is accomplished by an automated machine.

Automated flow lines: Methods or work part transport transfer Mechanical buffer storage control function,
design and fabrication consideration.
Analysis of Automated flow lines: General terminology and analysis of transfer lines without and with
buffer storage, partial automation, implementation of automated flow lines.

UNIT-II

AUTOMATED FLOW LINES

An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations which are linked
together by work handling devices that transfer parts between the stations. The transfer
of workparts occurs automatically and the workstations carry out their specialized
functions automatically. The flow line can be symbolized as shown in Figure1 using the
symbols presented in Table1. A raw workpart enters one end of the line and the
processing steps are performed sequentially as the part moves from one station to the
next. It is possible to incorporate buffer storage zones into the flow line, either al a
single location or between every workstation. It is also possible to include inspection
stations in the line to automatically perform intermediate checks on the quality of the
workparts. Manual stations might also be located along the flow line to perform certain
operations which are difficult or uneconomical to automate.

Figure 1 In-line configuration

Figure 2 symbols used in production systems diagrams
 The objectives of the use of flow line automation are, therefore:
 To reduce labor costs

 To increase production rates

 To reduce work-in-process

 To minimize distances moved between operations

 To achieve specialization of operations

 To achieve integration of operations

Configurations of automated flow line.

1) In-line type
The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more-or-less
straight-line arrangement as shown in figure 1. An example of an in-line transfer
machine used for metal-cutting operations is illustrated in Figure 4 and 5.

Figure 4 Example of 20 stations In-line

Figure 5 Example of 20 stations In-line configuration

2) Segmented In-Line Type
The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-line
arrangement which are usually perpendicular to each other with L-Shaped or U-
shaped or Rectangular shaped as shown in figure 5-7. The flow of work can take a
few 90° turns, either for workpieces reorientation, factory layout limitations, or
other reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.

Figure 5 L-shaped configuration

Figure 6 U-shaped configuration

Figure 7 Rectangular-shaped configuration

3) Rotary type
In the rotary configuration, the workparts are indexed around a circular table or dial.
The workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of the
dial. The parts ride on the rotating table and arc registered or positioned, in turn, at each
station for its processing or assembly operation. This type of equipment is often
referred to as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the configuration is
shown in Figure 8 and example of six station rotary shown in figure 9.

Figure 8 Rotary configuration

Figure 9 Example of 6 station rotary configuration

 METHODS OF WORKPART TRANSPORT
The transfer mechanism of the automated flow line must not only move the partially
completed workparts or assemblies between adjacent stations, it must also orient
and locate the parts in the correct position for processing at each station. The
general methods of transporting workpieces on flow lines can be classified into the
following three categories:
1. Continuous transfer
2. Intermittent or synchronous transfer
3. Asynchronous or power-and-free transfer

The most appropriate type of transport system for a given application depends on
such factors as:
The types of operation to be performed
The number of stations on the line
The weight and size of the work parts

Whether manual stations are included on the line

Production rate requirements
Balancing the various process times on the line

1. Continuous transfer
With the continuous method of transfer, the workparts are moved continuously at
Constant speed. This requires the workheads to move during processing in order to
maintain continuous registration with the workpart. For some types of operations,
this movement of the workheads during processing is not feasible. It would be
difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining transfer line
because of inertia problems due to the size and weight of the workheads. In other
cases, continuous transfer would be very practical. Examples of its use are in
beverage bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations where the
human operator can move with the moving flow line, and relatively simple
automatic assembly tasks. In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles are
transported around a continuously rotating drum. Beverage is discharged into the
moving bottles by spouts located at the drum's periphery. The advantage of this
application is that the liquid beverage is kept moving at a steady speed and hence
there are no inertia problems.

Continuous transfer systems are relatively easy to design and fabricate and can
achieve a high rate of production.
2) Intermittent transfer
As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are transported with an
intermittent or discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed in position and the
parts are moved between stations and then registered at the proper locations for
processing. All workparts are transported at the same time and, for this reason, the
term "synchronous transfer system" is also used to describe this method of workpart
transport.

3) Asynchronous transfer
This system of transfer, also referred to as a "power-and-free system," allows each
workpart to move to the next station when processing at the current station has been
completed. Each part moves independently of other parts. Hence, some parts are
being processed on the line at the same time that others are being transported
between sta-tions.

Asynchronous transfer systems offer the opportunity for greater flexibility than do the
other two systems, and this flexibility can be a great advantage in certain circumstances.
In-process storage of workparts can be incorporated into the asynchronous systems with
relative ease. Power-and-free systems can also compensate for line balancing problems
where there are significant differences in process times between stations. Parallel
stations or several series stations can be used for the longer operations, and single
stations can be used for the shorter operations. Therefore, the average production rates
can be approximately equalized. Asynchronous lines are often used where there are one
or more manually operated stations and cycle-time variations would be a problem on
either the continuous or synchronous transport systems. Larger workparts can be
handled on the asynchronous systems. A disadvantage of the power-and-free systems is
that the cycle rates are generally slower than for the other types.
TRANSFER MECHANISMS
There are various types of transfer mechanisms used to move parts between
stations. These mechanisms can be grouped into two types: those used to provide
linear travel for in-line machines, and those used to provide rotary motion for dial
indexing machines.

Linear transfer mechanisms

We will explain the operation of three of the typical mechanisms; the walking beam
transfer bar system, the powered roller conveyor system, and the chain-drive
conveyor system. This is not a complete listing of all types, but it is a representative
sample.

Walking beam systems

With the walking beam transfer mechanism, the work-parts are lifted up from their
workstation locations by a transfer bar and moved one position ahead, to the next
station. The transfer bar then lowers the pans into nests which position them more
accurately for processing. This type of transfer device is illustrated in Figure10 and
11. For speed and accuracy, the motion of the beam is most often generated by a
rotating camshaft powered by an electric motor or a roller movement in a profile
powered by hydraulic cylinder. Figure 12 shows the working of the beam
mechanish.

Figure 10 Almac Industrial Systems, the Ontario-based manufacturer of material

handling equipment- Walking Beam’.
Figure 11 SIKAMA INTERNATIONAL has developed a Walking beam mechanism
for FALCON 1200 and 8500

Figure 12 walking beam transfer system, showing various stage during transfer stage
Powered roller conveyor system
This type of system is used in general stock handling systems as well as in
automated flow lines. The conveyor can be used to move pans or pallets possessing
flat riding surfaces. The rollers can be powered by either of two mechanisms. The
first is a belt drive, in which a flat moving belt beneath the rollers provides the
rotation of the rollers by friction. A chain drive is the second common mechanism
used to power the rollers. Powered roller conveyors are versatile transfer systems
because they can be used to divert work pallets into workstations or alternate tracks.

(13 a)
(13 b)

Figure 13 a, b and c Power Conveyor

 Chain-drive conveyor system
In chain-drive conveyor system either a chain or a flexible steel belt is used to
transport the work carriers. The chain is driven by pulleys in either an "over-and-
under" configuration, in which the pulleys turn about a horizontal axis, or an
"around-the-corner" configuration, in which the pulleys rotate about a vertical axis.
Figure 14 shows the chain conveyor transfer system.

Figure 14 Chain drive conveyor

This general type of transfer system can be used for continuous, intermittent, or
nonsynchronous movement of workparts. In the nonsynchronous motion, the
workparts are pulled by friction or ride on an oil film along a track with the chain or
belt providing the movement. It is necessary to provide some sort of final location
for the workparts when they arrive at their respective stations.
Rotary transfer mechanisms
There are several methods used to index a circular table or dial at various equal
angular positions corresponding to workstation locations.
Rack and pinion
This mechanism is simple but is not considered especially suited to the high-speed
operation often associated with indexing machines. The device is pictured in Figure
4.6 and uses a piston to drive the rack, which causes the pinion gear and attached
indexing table to rotate, A clutch or other device is used to provide rotation in the
desired direction.

Figure 15 rack and pinion mechanisms

Ratchet and pawl:
A ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction, while
preventing motion in the opposite direction.
Ratchets consist of a gearwheel and a pivoting spring loaded finger called a pawl
that engages the teeth. Either the teeth, or the pawl, are slanted at an angle, so that
when the teeth are moving in one direction, the pawl slides up and over each tooth
in turn, with the spring forcing it back with a 'click' into the depression before the
next tooth. When the teeth are moving in the other direction, the angle of the pawl
causes it to catch against a tooth and stop further motion in that direction. This drive
mechanism is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 Rachet and pawl mechanism

Geneva mechanism:
The two previous mechanisms convert a linear motion into a rotational motion. The
Geneva mechanism uses a continuously rotating driver to index the table, as
pictured in Figure 17. If the driven member has six slots for a six-station dial
indexing machine, each turn of the driver will cause the table to advance one-sixth
of a turn. The driver only causes movement of the table through a portion of its
rotation. For a six-slotted driven member, 120° of a complete rotation of the driver
is used to index the table. The other 240° is dwell. For a four-slotted driven
member, the ratio would be 90° for index and 270° for dwell. The usual number of
indexings per revolution of the table is four, five, six, and eight.
Figure 17 Geneva mechanism

CAM Mechanisms:
Various forms of cam mechanism, an example of which is illustrated in Figure 18,
provide probably the most accurate and reliable method of indexing the dial. They
are in widespread use in industry despite the fact that the cost is relatively high
compared to alternative mechanisms. The cam can be designed to give a variety of
velocity and dwell characteristics.

Figure 18 CAM mechanisms

 CONTROL FUNCTIONS
Controlling an automated flow line is a complex problem, owing to the sheer
number of sequential steps that must be carried out. There are three main functions
that are utilized to control the operation of an automatic transfer system. The first of
these is an operational requirement, the second is a safety requirement, and the third
is dedicated to improving quality.

1. Sequence control.
The purpose of this function is to coordinate the sequence of actions of the transfer
system and its workstations. The various activities of the automated flow line must
be carried out with split-second timing and accuracy.
Sequence control is basic to the operation of the flow line.

2. Safety monitoring:
This function ensures that the transfer system does not operate in an unsafe or
hazardous condition. Sensing devices may be added to make certain that the cutting
tool status is satisfactory to continue to process the workpart in the case of a
machining-type transfer line. Other checks might include monitoring certain critical
steps in the sequence control function to make sure that these steps have all been
performed and in the correct order. Hydraulic or air pressures might also be
checked if these are crucial to the operation of automated flow lines.

3. Quality monitoring:
The third control function is to monitor certain quality attributes of the workpart. Its
purpose is to identify and possibly reject defective workparts and assemblies. The
inspection devices required to perform quality monitoring are sometimes incorporated
into existing processing stations. In other cases, separate stations are included in the
line for the sole purpose of inspecting the workpart as shown in figure 19.

Figure 19 Inspection station with feedback

Conventional thinking on the control of the line has been to stop operation when a malfunction
occurred. While there are certain malfunctions representing unsafe con-ditions that demand
shutdown of the line, there are other situations where stoppage of the line is not required and
perhaps not even desirable. There are alternative control strategies 1.Instantaneous control and 2.
Memory control.

Instantaneous control:
This mode of control stops the operation of the flow line immediately when a
malfunction is detected. It is relatively simple, inexpensive, and trouble-free.
Diagnostic features are often added to the system to aid in identifying the location
and cause of the trouble to the operator so that repairs can be quickly made.
However, stopping the machine results in loss of production from the entire line,
and this is the system's biggest drawback.

Memory control:
In contrast to instantaneous control, the memory system is designed to keep the
machine operating. It works to control quality and/or protect the machine by
preventing subsequent stations from processing the particular workpart and by
segregating the part as defective at the end of the line. The premise upon which
memory-type control is based is that the failures which occur at the stations will be
random and infrequent. If, however, the station failures result from cause and tend
to repeat, the memory system will not improve production but, rather, degrade it.
The flow line will continue to operate, with the consequence that bad parts will
continue to be produced. For this reason, a counter is sometimes used so that if a
failure occurs at the same station for two or three consecutive cycles, the memory
logic will cause the machine to stop for repairs.

BUFFER STORAGE
Automated flow lines are often equipped with additional features beyond the basic
transfer mechanisms and workstations. It is not uncommon for production flow lines to
include storage zones for collecting banks of workparts along the line. One example of
the use of storage zones would be two intermittent transfer systems, each without any
storage capacity, linked together with a workpart inventory area. It is possible to
connect three, four, or even more lines in this manner. Another example of workpart
storage on flow lines is the asynchronous transfer line. With this system, it is possible
to provide a bank of workparts for every station on the line.

There are two principal reasons for the use of buffer storage zones. The first is to
reduce the effect of individual station breakdowns on the line operation. The
continuous or intermittent transfer system acts as a single integrated machine. When
breakdowns occur at the individual stations or when preventive maintenance is
applied to the machine, production must be halted. In many cases, the proportion of
time the line spends out of operation can be significant, perhaps reaching 50% or
more. Some of the common reasons for line stoppages are:
Tool failures or tool adjustments at individual processing stations Scheduled
tool changes
Defective workparts or components at assembly stations, which require
that the
Feed mechanism be cleared
Feed hopper needs to be replenished at an assembly station
Limit switch or other electrical malfunction
Mechanical failure of transfer system or workstation

Figure 20 Storage buffer between two stages of a production

When a breakdown occurs on an automated flow line, the purpose of the buffer
storage zone is to allow a portion of the line to continue operating while the
remaining portion is stopped and under repair. For example, assume that a 20-
station line is divided into two sections and connected by a parts storage zone which
automatically collects parts from the first section and feeds them to the second
section. If a station jam were to cause the first section of the line to stop, the second
section could continue to operate as long as the supply of parts in the buffer zone
lasts. Similarly, if the second section were to shut down, the first section could
continue to operate as long as there is room in the buffer zone to store parts.
Hopefully, the average production rate on the first section would be about equal to
that of the second section. By dividing the line and using the storage area, the
average production rate would be improved over the original 20-station Mow line.
Figure 20 shows the Storage buffer between two stages of a production line
Reasons for using storage buffers:

– To reduce effect of station breakdowns

– To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
– To provide a place to put the output of the line
– To allow curing time or other required delay
– To smooth cycle time variations
– To store parts between stages with different production rates

The disadvantages of buffer storage on flow lines are increased factory floor space,
higher in-process inventory, more material handling equipment, and greater
complexity of the overall flow line system. The benefits of buffer storage are often
great enough to more than compensate for these disadvantages.

AUTOMATION FOR MACHINING OPERATIONS

Transfer systems have been designed to perform a great variety of different metal-
cutting processes. In fact, it is difficult to think of machining operations that must
be excluded from the list. Typical applications include operations such as milling,
boring, drilling, reaming, and tapping. However, it is also feasible to carry out
operations such as turning and grinding on transfer-type systems.

There are various types of mechanized and automated machines that perform a
sequence of operations simultaneously on different work parts. These include dial
indexing machines, trunnion machines, and transfer lines. To consider these
machines in approximately the order of increasing complexity, we begin with one
that really does not belong in the list at all, the single-station machine.

Single-station machine
These mechanized production machines perform several operations on a single
workpart which is fixtured in one position throughout the cycle. The operations are
performed on several different surfaces by work heads located around the piece.
The available space surrounding a stationary workpiece limits the number of
machining heads that can be used. This limit on the number of operations is the
principal disadvantage of the single-station machine. Production rates are usually
low to medium. The single station machine is as shown in figure 21.
Figure 21 single-station machines
 Rotary indexing machine
To achieve higher rates of production, the rotary indexing machine performs a
sequence of machining operations on several work parts simultaneously. Parts are
fixtured on a horizontal circular table or dial, and indexed between successive
stations. An example of a dial indexing machine is shown in Figure 22 and 23.

Figure 22 Example of 6 station rotary configuration

Figure 23 Five station dial index machine showing vertical and

horizontal machining centers
Trunnion machine
Trunnion machine is a vertical drum mounted on a horizontal axis, so it is a
variation of the dial indexing machine as shown in figure 24. The vertical drum is
called a trunnion. Mounted on it are several fixtures which hold the work parts
during processing. Trunnion machines are most suitable for small workpieces. The
configuration of the machine, with a vertical rather than a horizontal indexing dial,
provides the opportunity to perform operations on opposite sides of the workpart.
Additional stations can be located on the outside periphery of the trunnion if it is
required. The trunnion-type machine is appropriate for work parts in the medium
production range.

Figure 24 Six station trunnion machine

 Center column machine
Another version of the dial indexing arrangement is the center column type,
pictured in Figure 25. In addition to the radial machining heads located around the
periphery of the horizontal table, vertical units are mounted on the center column of
the machine. This increases the number of machining operations that can be
performed as compared to the regular dial indexing type. The center column
machine is considered to be a high-production machine which makes efficient use
of floor space.

Figure 25 Ten-station center column machine

Transfer machine
The most highly automated and versatile of the machines is the transfer line, as
explained earlier the workstations are arranged in a straight-line flow pattern and
parts are transferred automatically from station to station. The transfer system can
be synchronous or asynchronous, work parts can be transported with or without
pallel fixtures, buffer storage can be incorporated into the line operation if desired,
and a variety of different monitoring and control features can be used to manage the
line. Hence, the transfer machine offers the greatest flexibility of any of the
machines discussed. The transfer line can accommodate larger workpieces than the rotary-type
indexing systems. Also, the number of stations, and therefore the number of operations, which can
be included on the line is greater than for the circular arrangement. The transfer line has
traditionally been used for machining a single product in high quantities over long production runs.
More recently, transfer machines have been designed for ease of changeover to allow several
different but similar workparts to be produced on the same line. These attempts to introduce
flexibility into transfer line design add to the appeal of these high-production systems.

Figure 26 Example of 20 stations Transfer line

Figure 27 Example of Transfer line

 ANALYSIS OF AUTOMATED FLOW LINE

General Terminology & Analysis:

There are two problem areas in analysis of automated flow lines which must be addressed:
R Process Technology
R Systems Technology
Process Technology refers to the body of knowledge about the theory & principles of the
particular manufacturing process used on the production line. E.g. in the manufacturing
process, process technology includes the metallurgy & machinability of the work material,
the correct applications of the cutting tools, chip control, economics of machining,
machine tools alterations & a host of other problems. Many problems encountered in
machining can be overcome by application of good machining principles. In each process,
a technology is developed by many years of research & practice.

Terminology & Analysis of transfer lines with no Internal storage:

There are a few assumptions that we will have to make about the operation of the
Transfer line & rotary indexing machines:
7. The workstations perform operations such as machining & not assembly.
8. Processing times at each station are constant though they may not be equal.
9. There is synchronous transfer of parts.
10. No internal storage of buffers.
In the operation of an automated production line, parts are introduced into the first
workstation & are processed and transported at regular intervals to the succeeding
stations. This interval defines the ideal cycle time, Tc of the production line. Tc is the
processing time for the slowest station of the line plus the transfer time; i.e. :

Tc = max (Tsi) + Tr ---------------- (1)

Tc = ideal cycle on the line (min)

Tsi = processing time at station (min)
Tr = repositioning time, called the transfer time (min)

In equation 1, we use the max (Tsi) because the longest service time establishes the pace
of the production line. The remaining stations with smaller service times will have to wait
for the slowest station. The other stations will be idle.

In the operation of a transfer line, random breakdowns & planned stoppages

cause downtime on the line.

Common reasons for downtime on an Automated Production line:

4. Tool failures at workstations.
5. Tool adjustments at workstations
6. Scheduled tool charges
7. Limit switch or other electrical malfunctions.
 2. Mechanical failure of a workstation.
3. Mechanical failure of a transfer line.
4. Stock outs of starting work parts.
5. Insufficient space for completed parts.
6. Preventive maintenance on the line worker breaks.

The frequency of the breakdowns & line stoppages can be measured even though they
occur randomly when the line stops, it is down for a certain average time for each downtime
occurrence. These downtime occurrences cause the actual average production cycle time of
the line to be longer than the ideal cycle time.

The actual average production time Tp:

Tp = Tc + FTd ------------------------ 2
F = downtime frequency, line stops / cycle
Td = downtime per line stop in minutes
The downtime Td includes the time for the repair crew to swing back into action,
diagnose the cause of failure, fix it & restart the drive.

FTd = downtime averaged on a per cycle basis

Production can be computed as a reciprocal of Tp

Rp = 1 ----------------------------- 3
Tp
Where, Rp = actual average production rate (pc / min)
Tp = the actual average production time
The ideal production rate is given by

Rc = 1 ------------------------------ 4
Tc
Where Rc = ideal production rate (pc / min)

Production rates must be expressed on an hourly basis on automated production lines.

The machine tool builder uses the ideal production rate, Rc, in the proposal for the
automated transfer line & calls it as the production rate at 100% efficiency because of
downtime. The machine tool builder may ignore the effect of downtime on production
rate but it should be stated that the amount of downtime experienced on the line is the
responsibility of the company using the production line.
Line efficiency refers to the proportion of uptime on the line & is a measure of
reliability more than efficiency.
Line efficiency can be calculated as follows:

E = Tc = Tc + FTd ----------------- 5
Tp Tc
 Where E = the proportion of uptime on the production line.

An alternative measure of the performance is the proportion of downtime on the line

which is given by:

D = FTd = FTd + FTd ----------------- 6

Tp Tc
Where D = proportion of downtime on the line

E + D = 1.0

An important economic measure of the performance of an automated production line is the

cost of the unit produced. The cost of 1 piece includes the cost of the starting blank that is
to processed, the cost of time on the production line & the cost of the tool consumed. The
cost per unit can be expressed as the sum of three factors:

Cpc = Cm + CoTp + Ct ------------------------ 7

Where Cpc = cost per piece (Rs / pc)
Cm = cost per minute to operate the time (Rs / min)
Tp = average production time per piece (min / pc)
Ct = cost of tooling per piece (Rs / pc)
Co = the allocation of capital cost of the equipment over the service life, labour to
operate the line, applicable overheads, maintenance, & other relevant costs all reduced to
cost per min.

Problem on Transfer line performance:

A 30 station Transfer line is being proposed to machine a certain component currently

produced by conventional methods. The proposal received from the machine tool builder
states that the line will operate at a production rate of 100 pc / hr at 100% efficiency. From
a similar transfer line it is estimated that breakdowns of all types will occur at a frequency
of F = 0.20 breakdowns per cycle & that the average downtime per line stop will be 8.0
minutes. The starting blank that is machined on the line costs Rs. 5.00 per part. The line
operates at a cost for 100 parts each & the average cost per tool = Rs. 20 per cutting edge.
Compute the following:
1. Production rate
2. Line efficiency
3. Cost per unit piece produced on the line

Solution:

2. At 100% efficiency, the line produces 100 pc/hr. The reciprocal gives the unit
time or ideal cycle time per piece.

Tc = 1 = 0.010hr / pc = 0.6 mins

100

The average production time per piece is given by:

 Tp = Tc + FTd
1. 0.60 + 0.20 (8.0)
2. 0.60 + 1.60
3. 2.2 mins / piece
Rp = 1 / 2.2m = 0.45 pc / min = 27 pc / hr

Efficiency is the ratio of the ideal cycle time to actual production time

E = 0.6 / 2.2
4. 27 %

Tooling cost per piece

Ct = (30 tools) (Rs 20 / tool)

parts
2. Rs. 6 / piece

The hourly ratio of Rs 100 / hr to operate the line is equivalent to Rs. 1.66 / min.

Cpc = 5 + 1.66 (2.2) + 6

4. 5 + 3.65 + 6
5. Rs 14.65 / piece

Upper Bound Approach:

The upper bound approach provides an upper limit on the frequency on the line stops per
cycle. In this approach we assume that the part remains on the line for further processing.
It is possible that there will be more than one line stop associated with a given part during
its sequence of processing operations. Let
Pr = probability or frequency of a failure at station i where i = 1, 2,………. η
Station i where i = 1, 2, ……………. η

Since a part is not removed from the line when a station jam occurs it is possible that the
part will be associated with a station breakdown at every station. The expected number of
lines stops per part passing through the line is obtained by summing the frequencies Pi
over the n stations. Since each of the n stations is processing a part of each cycle, then the
expected frequency of line stops per cycle is equal to the expected frequency of line stops
per part i.e.
η
F = ∑ Pi ----------------------------- 8
i=1
where F = expected frequency of line stops per cycle
Pi = frequency of station break down per cycle, causing a line stop
1. = number of workstations on the line
If all the Pi are assumed equal, which is unlikely but useful for computation purposes, then

F = η.p where all the Pi are equal ---------------- 9

p = p = ………….. p =p
1 2 η
 Lower Bound Approach:

The lower bound approach gives an estimate of the lower limit on the expected frequency
of line stops per cycle. Here we assume that a station breakdown results in destruction of
the part, resulting in removal of the part from the line & preventing its subsequent
processing at the remaining workstations.

Let Pi = the probability that the workpiece will jam at a particular station i.

Then considering a given part as it proceeds through the line, Pi = probability that the
part will jam at station 1
(1 - Pi) = probability that the part will not jam station 1 & thus will
available for processing at subsequent stations. A jam at station 2 is contingent on
successfully making it through station 1 & therefore the probability that the same part will
jam at station 2 is given by
P (1 – P )
3. 2

Generalising the quantity

P (1 – Pi - 1) (1 – Pi - 2) = (1 – P2) (1 – P1)
Where i = 1,,2, ………. η
is the probability that a given part will jam at any station i. Summing all these probabilities
from i = 1 through i = η gives the probability or frequency of line stops per cycle.

Probability that the given part will pass through all η stations without a line stop is
η
π (1 - Pi)
i=1

Therefore the frequency of line stops per cycle is:

η
F = 1 – π (1 - Pi) --------------------------------- 10
i=1
If all the probabilities, Pi, are equal, Pi = P, then
η
F = 1 - (1 - P)

Because of parts removal in the lower bound approach, the number of parts coming of
the line is less than the number launched onto the front of the line.
If F= frequency of line stops & a part is removed for every line stop, then the proportion
of parts produced is (1 - F). This is the yield of the production line. The production rate
equation then becomes:

Rap = 1 – F --------------------------------------- 11
Tp
where Rap = average actual production rate of acceptable parts from the line
Tp = average cycle rate of the transfer machine
Rp = 1 = average cycle rate of the system
Tp
 Example 2 Upper Bound v/s Lower Bound Approach

A 2 station transfer line has an ideal cycle time of Tc = 1.2 mins. The probability of
station breakdown per cycle is equal for all stations & P = 0.005 breakdowns / cycle. For
each of the upper bound & lower bound determine:
2. frequency of line stops per cycle
3. average actual production rate
4. line efficiency

1. For the Upper bound approach

F = 20 (0.005) = 0.10 lines per cycle
20 20
F = 1 - (1 – 0.005) = 1 – (0.995)
1. 1 – 0.0946
2. 0.0954 line stops per cycle
For the Upper bound approach the production rate,

Rp = 1
20
1. 0.500 pc / min
2. 30 pc /hr
For the lower bound approach the production time we calculate by using the formula for
F Tp = Tc + F (Td)
1. 1.2 + 0.0954 (0.8)
2. 1.9631 mins

Production rate = 0.9046

1.9631
2. 0.4608 pc / min
3. 27.65 pc / hr
The production rate is about 8% lower than that we computed by the upper bound approach.
We should note that:
Rp = 1
0.9631
1. 0.5094 cycles / min
2. 30.56 cycles / hr
which is slightly higher than in the upper bound case.

c) For the upper bound the line efficiency will be

E = 1.2
2.0
1. 0.6
2. 60 %
For the lower bound approach we have

E = 1.2
1.9631
3. 0.6113
4. 61.13 %
 Line efficiency is greater with lower bound approach even though production rate is lower.
This is because lower bound approach leaves fewer parts remaining on the line to jam.

Analysis of Transfer Lines with Storage Buffers:

In an automated production line with no internal storage of parts, the workstations

are interdependent. When one station breaks down all other stations on the line are
affected either immediately or by the end of a few cycles of operation. The other stations
will be forced to stop for one or two reasons 1) starving of stations 2) Blocking of stations
Starving on an automated production line means that a workstation is prevented from
performing its cycle because it has no part to work on. When a breakdown occurs at any
workstation on the line, the stations downstream from the affected station will either
immediately or eventually become starved for parts.

Blocking means that a station is prevented from performing its work cycle because it
cannot pass the part it just completed to the neighbouring downstream station. When a
break down occurs at a station on the line, the stations upstreams from the affected station
become blocked because the broken down station cannot accept the next part for processing
from the neighbouring upstream station. Therefore none of the upstream stations can pass
their just completed parts for work.

By Adding one or more parts storage buffers between workstations production lines
can be designed to operate more efficiently. The storage buffer divides the line into stages
that can operate independently for a number of cycles.
The number depending on the storage capacity of the buffer
If one storage buffer is used, the line is divided into two stages.
If two storage buffers are used at two different locations along the line, then a
three stage line is formed.
The upper limit on the number of storage buffers is to have a storage between every pair
of adjacent stations.
The number of stages will then be equal to the number of workstations.
For an η stage line, there will be η – 1 storage buffers. This obviously will not include the
raw parts inventory at the front of the line or the finished parts inventory that accumulates
at the end of the line.
Consider a two – stage transfer line, with a storage buffer separating the stages. If we
assume that the storage buffer is half full. If the first stage breaks down, the second stage
can continue to operate using parts that are in the buffer. And if the second stage breaks
down, the first stage can continue to operate because it has the buffer to receive its output.
The reasoning for a two stage line can be extended to production lines with more than
two stages.

Limit of Storage Buffer Effectiveness:

Two extreme cases of storage buffer effectiveness can be identified:

1. No buffer storage capacity at all.
2. Infinite capacity storage buffers
If we assume in our Analysis that the ideal cycle time Tc is the same for all
stages considered.
In the case of no storage capacity, the production line acts as one stage when a station
breaks down the entire line stops. This is the case of a production line with no
internal storage.
The line efficiency of a zero capacity storage buffer:
Eo = Tc --------------------------------- 12
Tc + FTd

The opposite extreme is the case where buffer zones of infinite capacity are installed
between every pair of stages. If we assume that each storage buffer is half full, then each
stage is independent of the next. The presence of the internal storage buffer means that
then no stage will ever be blocked or starved because of a breakdown at some other stage.
An infinite capacity storage buffer cannot be realized in practice. If it could then
the overall line efficiency will be limited by the bottleneck stage.
i.e. production in all other stages would ultimately be restricted by the slowest stage. The
downstream stages could only process parts at the output rate of the bottleneck stage.
Given that the cycle time Tc is the same for all the stages the efficiency for any
stage k is given by:

Ek = Tc
Tc + F Td
kk

where k is used to identify the stage.

The overall line efficiency would be given by:

E = Minimum (E )
∞ k

where the subscript ∞ identifies E as the efficiency of a line whose storage buffers have
∞
infinite capacity.
By including one or more storage buffers in an automated production line, we expect to
improve the line efficiency above E , but we cannot expect to achieve E .
0 ∞
The actual value of line efficiency will fall somewhere between these extremes for a
given buffer capacity

E <E <E
0 b ∞
Analysis of a Two stage transfer line:

The two stage line is divided by a storage buffer of capacity is expressed in terms of the
number of work parts that it can store. The buffer receives the output of stage 1 & forwards it to
stage 2, temporarily storing any parts not immediately needed by stage 2 upto its capacity b.
The ideal cycle time Tc is the same for both stages. We assume the downtime distributions of
each stage to be the same with mean downtime = Td, let F 1 & F2
be the breakdown rates of stages 1 & 2 respectively.
F1 & F2 are not necessarily equal.
 Over the long run both stages must have equal efficiencies. If the efficiency of stage 1 is
greater than the efficiency of stage 2 then inventory would build up on the storage
buffer until its capacity is reached.
Thereafter stage 1 would eventually be blocked when it outproduced stage 2.
Similarly if the efficiency of stage 2 is greater than the efficiency of stage 1 the
inventory would get depleted thus stage 2 would be starved.
Accordingly the efficiencies would tend to equalize overtime in the two stages.
The overall efficiency for the two stage line can be expressed as:
1
E = E + {D η (b) } E 13
b 0 1 2

where Eb = overall efficiency for a two stage line with a buffer capacity b

2. E = line efficiency for the same line with no internal storage buffer
0
1
{ D η (b) } E represents the improvement in efficiency that results from having a 1
1
storage buffer with b > 0
when b = 0
E = Tc ----------------------------------14
2. Tc + (F + F ) Td
1 2
1
The term D can be thought of as the proportion of total time that stage 1 is down
1

1
D = F Td
1 1 ----------------------------------------- 15
Tc + (F + F )
1 Td
1. 2

The term h (b) is the proportion of the downtime D'1 (when the stage 1 is down) that stage
2 could be up & operating within the limits of storage buffer capacity b. The equations
cover several different downtime distributions based on the assumption that both stages are
never down at the same time. Four of these equations are presented below:

Assumptions & definitions: Assume that the two stages have equal downtime distributions
(Td1 = Td2 = Td) &
equal cycle times (Tc1 = Tc2 = Tc).
Let F1 = downtime frequency for stage 1, & F2 = downtime frequency for stage 2. Define
r to be the ration of breakdown frequencies as follows:

r = F1 ------------------- 16
F2
Equations for h(b) :
With these definitions & assumptions, we can express the relationships for h(b)for
two theoretical downtime distributions :
Constant downtime:
Each downtime occurrence is assumed to be of constant duration Td. this is a case of
no downtime variation. Given buffer capacity b, define B & L as follows:

b = B Td + L --------------- 17
Tc

Where B is the largest integer satisfying the relation : b Tc ≥ B,

Td
& L represents the leftover units, the amount by which b exceeds B Td .
Tc
There are two cases:

Case 1: r=1.0.h(b)
= B + LTc 1 --------18
B+1 Td (B+1)(B+2)

Case 2: r≠1.0.h(b)
=r1 - rB+L T c rB(1 - r)2 -----19
Td (1 – rB+1) (1 – rB+2)

Geometric downtime distribution:

In this downtime distribution, the probability that repairs are completed during cycle
duration Tc, is independent of the time since repairs began. This a case of maximum
downtime variation. There are two cases:
Case 1: r = 1.0.h(b)
c-----------------
B T--
= Td 20
2 + (b – 1) T c
Td
Case 2: r ≠ 1.0.
1 + r - Tc
Define K = T d --------------- 21
1 + r – r Tc
Td

Then h(b) = r (1 - Kb) -------------- 22 1-

b
rK

Finally, E2 corrects for the assumption in the calculation of h (b) that both stages
are never down at the same time. This assumption is unrealistic. What is more realistic is
that when stage 1 is down but stage 2 could be producing because of parts stored in the
buffer, there will be times when stage 2 itself breaks down. Therefore E2 provides an
estimate of the proportion of stage 2 uptime when it could be otherwise be operating even
with stage 1 being down. E2 is calculated as:

E2 = Tc --------------- 23 Tc + F2Td
 Two-Stage Automated Production Line:

A 20-station transfer line is divided into two stages of 10 stations each. The ideal cycle time of
each stage is Tc = 1.2 min. All of the stations in the line have the same probability of stopping,
p = 0.005. We assume that the downtime is constant when a breakdown occurs, Td
3. 8.0 min. Using the upper-bound approach, compute the line efficiency for the
following buffer capacities: (a) b = 0, (b) b = ∞, (c) b = 10, (d) b = 100

Solution:

F = np = 20(0.005) = 0.10

E0 = 1.2 = 0.60
1.2 + 0.1(8)

1. For a two stage line with 20 stations (each stage = 10 stations) & b = ∞, we
first compute F:

F1 = F2 = 10(0.005) = 0.05

E ∞ = E1 = E2 = 1.2 = 0.75
1.2 + 0.05(8)

1. For a two stage line with b = 10, we must determine each of the items in equation
13. We have E0 from part (a). E0 = 0.60. And we have E2 from part (b). E2 = 0.75

D'1 = 0.05 (8) = 0.40 = 0.20

1.2 + (0.05 + 0.05) (8) 2.0

Evaluation of h(b) is from equation 18 for a constant repair distribution. In equation 17,
the ratio

Td = 8.0 = 6.667.
Tc 1.2
For b = 10, B = 1 & L = 3.333.

Thus,
h(b) = h(10)
= 1 + 3.333 (1.2) 1
1+1 (8.0) (1 + 1)(1 + 2)
3. 0.50 + 0.8333 = 0.5833 We
can now use equation 13:

E10 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.5833) (0.75)

= 0.600 + 0.0875 = 0.6875
 1. For b = 100, the only parameter in equation 13 that is different from part (c) is
h(b). for b = 100, B = 15 & L = 0 in equation 18. Thus, we have:

h(b ) = h(100) = 15
15 + 1
20. 0.9375
Using this value,

E100 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.9375) (0.75)

= 0.600 + 0.1406 = 0.7406

The value of h(b) not only serves its role in equation 13 but also provides information on
how much improvement in efficiency we get from any given value of b. note in example
15 that the difference between E∞ & E0 = 0.75 – 0.60 = 0.15.
For b = 10, h(b) = h(10) = 0.58333, which means we get 58.33% of the maximum
possible improvement in line efficiency using a buffer capacity of 10 {E10 = 0.6875 =
0.60 + 0.5833)(0.75 – 0.60)}.
For b = 100, h(b) = h(100) = 0.9375, which means we get 93.75% of the maximum
improvement with b = 100 {E100 = 0.7406 = 0.60 + 0.9375 (0.75 – 0.60)}
We are not only interested in the line efficiencies of a two stage production line.
We also want to know the corresponding production rates. These can be evaluated based
on knowledge of the ideal cycle time Tc & the definition of line efficiency. According to
equation 5, E = Tc / Tp. Since Rp = the reciprocal of Tp, then E = TcRp. Rearranging this
we have:

Rp = E ------------------- 24
Tc

Production Rates on the Two-Stage Line of the example above:

Compute the production rates for the 4 cases in the above example. The value
of Tc = 1.2 min is as before.

Solution:

2. For b = 0, E0 = 0.60. Applying equation 23, we have

Rp = 0.60/ 1.2 = 0.5 pc/min = 30 pc /hr.

3. For b = ∞, E∞ = 0.75.

Rp = 0.75 / 1.2 = 0.625 pc / min = 37.5 pc /hr

(c) For b = 10, E10 = 0.6875.

Rp = 0.6875 / 1.2 = 0.5729 pc / min = 34.375 pc /hr.

(d) For b = 100, E100 = 0.7406

 Rp = 0.7406 / 1.2 = 0.6172 pc / min = 37.03 pc / hr

Effect of High Variability in Downtimes:

Evaluate the line efficiencies for the two-stage line in above example, except that
the geometric repair distribution is used instead of the constant downtime distribution.

Solution:
For parts (a) & (b), the values of E 0 & E∞ will be the same as in the
previous example. E0 = 0.600 & E∞ = 0.750.

1 For b = 10, all of the parameters in equation 13 remain the same except

h(b). Using equation 20, we have:

h(b) = h(10) = 10(1.2/8.0) = = 0.4478

2 + (10 - 1)(1.2/8.0)

Now using equation 13, we have

E10 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.4478)(0.75)

= 0.6672

(d)For b = 100, it will be:

h(b) = h(100) = 100(1.2/8.0) = 0.8902

2 + (100 - 1)(1.2/8.0)

E100 = 0.600 + 0.20 (0.8902)(0.75)

= 0.7333

Transfer Lines with More thanTwo Stages:

If the line efficiency of an automated production line can be increased by dividing it into
two stages with a storage buffer between, then one might infer that further improvements
in performance can be achieved by adding additional storage buffers. Although we do not
exact formulas for computing line efficiencies for the general case of any capacity b for
multiple storage buffers, efficiency improvements can readily be determined for the case of
infinite buffer capacity.

Transfer Lines with more than One Storage Buffer:

For the same 20-station transfer line we have been considering in the previous examples,
compare the line efficiencies & production rates for the following cases, where in each case the
buffer capacity is infinite: (a) no storage buffers, (b) one buffer, (c) three buffers, &
 19 buffers. Assume in cases (b) & (c) that the buffers are located in the line to equalise
the downtime frequencies; i.e. all Fi are equal. As before, the computations are based on
the upper-bound approach.

Solution:
(a) For the case of no storage buffer, E∞ = 0.60

Rp = 0.60/1.2 = 0.50 pc/min = 30 pc/hr

2. For the case of one storage buffer

(a two stage line), E∞ = 0.75

Rp = 0.75/1.2 = 0.625 pc/min = 37.5 pc/hr

(c) For the case of three storage buffers (a four stage line), we have

F1 = F2 = F3 = F4 = 5(0.005) = 0.025

Tp = 1.2 + 0.025(8) = 1.4 min / pc.

E∞ = 1.2 / 1.4 = 0.8571

Rp = 0.8571/1.2 = 0.7143 pc/min

= 42.86 pc/hr.

(d) For the case of 19 storage buffers (a 20 stage line, where each stage is one station),
we have

F1 = F2 = ….. = F20 = 1(0.005) = 0.005

Tp = 1.2 + 0.005(8) = 1.24 min / pc.

E∞ = 1.2 / 1.24 = 0.9677

Rp = 0.9677/1.2 = 0.8065 pc/min

= 48.39 pc/hr.

This last value is very close to the ideal production rate of Rc = 50 pc/hr

Problem:

Suppose that a 10 station transfer machine is under consideration to produce a component

used in a pump. The item is currently produced by mass conventional means but demand
for the item cannot be met. The manufacturing engineering department has estimated that
the ideal cycle time will be
Tc = 1.0 min. From similar transfer lines & that the average downtime for line stop
occur with a frequency;
 F = 0.10 breakdown/cycle & the average downtime per line stop will be 6.0 min. The
scrap rate for the current conventional processing method is 5% & this is considered a
good estimate for a transfer line. The starting costing for the component costs Rs. 1.50
each & it will cost Rs 60.00 / hr or Rs 1 / min to operate the transfer line. Cutting tools are
estimated to cost Rs 0.15/ work part. Compute the following measures of line performance
given the foregoing data.

(a) Production rate

(b) Number of hours required to meet a demand of 1500 units/week.
(c) Line efficiency
(d) Cost per unit produced.

Problem:

If a line has 20 work stations each with a probability of breakdown of 0.02, the cycle time
of the line is 1 min & each time a breakdown occurs, it takes exactly 5 minutes to repair.
The line is to be divided into two stages by a storage buffer so that each stage will consist of
10 stations. Compute the efficiency of the two stage line for various buffer capacities.

Solution:

Let us compute the efficiency of the line with no buffer

F = np = 20(0.02) =0.4
Eo = 1.0 = 0.20
1.0+0.4(10)

Next dividing the line into equal stages by a buffer zone of infinite capacity each
stage would have an efficiency given by
F1 = F2 = 10 (0.02) = 0.2
E1 = E2 = Tc = 1.0 = 0.333
Tc + (F1+F2)Td 1.0+ 0.2(10)

d) The cost per product can be computed except that we must account for the scrap rate.
Cpc = 1 (1.50+1.00 x 1.60 + 0.15) = Rs.3.42/good unit
0.95

The Rs.3.42 represents the average cost per acceptable product under the assumption that
we are discarding the 5% bad units with no salvage value and no disposal cost. Suppose that
we could repair these parts at a cost of Rs.5.00/unit. To compute the cost per piece the
repair cost would be added to other components.
Cpc = 1.50 + 1.00 x 1.60 + 0.15 + 0.05 (5.00) = Rs. 3.50/unit.
The policy of scrapping the 5% defects ,yields a lower cost per unit rather than
repairing them.
 Problem:

An eight station rotary indexing machine operates with an ideal cycle time of 20 secs. The
frequency of line stop occurrences is 0.06 stop / cycle on the average. When a stop occurs
it takes an average of 3 min to make repairs. Determine the following:

1. Average production time 3. Line efficiency

2. Proportion of downtime 4. Average production rate
Solution
Tp = Tc + F ( Td)
= 0.33 + 0.06(3)
= 0.5133 minutes.
Rp = 1 = 1.94 pieces /minutes
0.5133
Line efficiency = Tc = 0.333 = 0.491
Tp 0.51
Proportion of downtime can be calculated by D = F Td = 0.06(3) = 0.35
Tp 0.5133

Partial Automation:

Many assembly lines in industry contain a combination of automated & manual work
stations. These cases of partially automated production lines occur for two main reasons:

1. Automation is introduced gradually on an existing manual line.

Suppose that demand for the product made on a manually operated line increases, & it is
desired to increase production & reduce labour costs by automating some or all of the stations.
The simpler operations are automated first, & the transition toward a fully automated line is
accomplished over a long period of time. Meanwhile, the line operates as a partially automated
system.
2. Certain manual operations are too difficult or too costly to automate.
Therefore, when the sequence of workstations is planned for the line, certain stations are designed to
be automated, whereas the others are designed as manual stations.

Examples of operations that might be too difficult to automate are assembly

procedures or processing steps involving alignment, adjustment, or fine-tuning of the
work unit. These operations often require special human skills and/or senses to carry
out. Many inspection procedures also fall into this category. Defects in a product or
a part that can be easily perceived by a human inspector are sometimes extremely
difficult to identify by an automated inspection device. Another problem is that the
automated inspection device can only check for the defects for which it was
designed, whereas a human inspector is capable of sensing a variety of unanticipated
imperfections & problems.

To analyze the performance of a partially automated production line,

we build on our previous analysis & make the following assumptions:
1. Workstations perform either processing or assembly operations;
2. Processing & assembly times at automated stations are constant, though
not necessarily equal at all stations;
3. Synchronous transfer of parts;
4. No internal buffer storage ;
5. The upper bound approach is applicable &
6. Station breakdowns occur only at automated stations.
Breakdowns do not occur at manual workstations because the human workers are
flexible enough, we assume, to adapt to the kinds of disruptions & malfunctions that
would interrupt the operation of an automated workstation. For example, if a human
operator were to retrieve a defective part from the parts bin at the station, the part
would immediately be discarded & replaced by another without much lost time. Of
course, this assumption of human adaptability is not always correct, but our analysis
is based on it.
The ideal cycle time Tc is determined by the slowest stations on the line,
which is generally one of the manual stations. If the cycle time is in fact determined
by a manual station, then Tc will exhibit a certain degree of variability simply
because there is a random variation in any repetitive human activity. However, we
assume that the average Tc remains constant over time. Given our assumption that
breakdowns occur only at automated stations, let na = the number of automated
stations & Td = average downtime per occurrence. For the automated stations that
perform processing operations, let pi = the probability (frequency) of breakdowns
per cycle; & for automated stations that perform assembly operations, let qi & mi
equal, respectively, the defect rate & probability that the defect will cause station i to
stop. We are now in a position to define the average actual production time:

Tp = Tc + ∑ piTd --------- 25
iєna
where the summation applies to the na automated stations only. For those
automated stations that perform assembly operations in which a part is added,

pi = miqi

If all pi, mi, & qi are equal, respectively to p, m, & q, then the preceding
equations reduce to the following:

Tp = Tc +napTd ---------- 26

and p = mq for those stations that perform assembly consisting of the addition of
a part.
Given that na is the number of automated stations, then nw = the number
of stations operated by manual workers, & na + nw = n, where n = the total station
count. Let Casi = cost to operate the automatic workstation i ($ / min), Cwi = cost
to operated manual workstation
i ($ / min), Cat = cost to operate the automatic transfer mechanism. Then the
total cost to operate the line is given by:

Co = Cat + ∑Casi + ∑Cwi -------- 27

iєna iєnw
where Co = cost or operating the partially automated production system ($ / min).
For all Casi = Cas & all
Cwi = Cw, then
Co = Cat + naCas + nwCw -------- 28

Now the total cost per unit produced on the line can be calculated as follows:

Cpc = Cm + CoTp + Ct ---------- 29

Pap

Where Cpc = cost per good assembly ($ / pc), Cm = cost of materials &
components being processed & assembled on the line ($ / pc),
Co = cost of operating the partially automated production system by either of
the equations 27 or 28
($ / min), Tp = average actual production time (min / pc), Ct = any cost of
disposable tooling ($ / pc), & Pap = proportion of good assemblies.

Problem on Partial Automation:

It has been proposed to replace one of the current manual workstations with
an automatic work head on a ten-station production line. The current line has six
automatic stations & four manual stations. Current cycle time is 30 sec. The
limiting process time is at the manual station that is proposed for replacement.
Implementing the proposal would allow the cycle time to be reduced to 24 sec. The
new station would cost $0.20/min. Other cost data: Cw = $0.15/min,
Cas = $0.10/min, & Cat = $0.12/min. Breakdowns occur at each automated station
with a probability p = 0.01. The new automated station is expected to have the
same frequency of breakdowns. Average downtime per occurrence Td = 3.0min,
which will be unaffected by the new station. Material costs & tooling costs will be
neglected in the analysis. It is desired to compare the current line with the proposed
change on the basis of production rate & cost per piece. Assume a yield of 100%
good product.

Solution:

For the current line,

Tc = 30 sec = 0.50min.
Tp = 0.50 + 6(0.01)(3.0) = 0.68 min.
Rp = 1/0.68 = 1.47 pc/min = 88.2pc/hr
Co = 0.12 + 4(0.15) + 6 (0.10)
= $1.32 / min
Cpc = 1.32 (0.68) = $0.898 / pc

For the proposed line,

Tc = 24 sec = 0.4 min.
Rp = 1/0.61 = 1.64 pc/min = 98.4pc/hr
Co = 0.12 + 3(0.15)+ 6(0.10)+ 1(0.20)
 = $1.37/min
Cpc = 1.67(0.61) = $0.836 / pc

Even though the line would be more expensive to operate per unit time, the
proposed chage would increase production rate & reduced piece cost.

Storage Buffers:

The preceding analysis assumes no buffer storage between stations. When

the automated portion of the line breaks down, the manual stations must also stop
for lack of work parts (either due to starving or blocking, depending on where the
manual stations are located relative to the automated stations). Performance would
be improved if the manual stations could continue to operate even when the
automated stations stop for a temporary downtime incident. Storage buffers located
before & after the manual stations would reduce forced downtime at these stations.

Problem on Storage Buffers on a Partially Automated Line:

Considering the current line in the above example, suppose that the ideal cycle time
for the automated stations on the current line Tc = 18 sec. The longest manual time
is 30 sec. Under the method of operation assumed in the above example both manual
& automated stations are out of action when a breakdown occurs at an automated
station. Suppose that storage buffers could be provided for each operator to insulate
them from breakdowns at automated stations. What effect would this have on
production rate & cost per piece?

Solution:

Given Tc = 18sec = 0.3min, the average actual production time on the

automated stations is computed as follows:

Tp = 0.30 + 6(0.01)(3.0) = 0.48min

Since this is less than the longest manual time of 0.50, the manual operation could
work independently of the automated stations if storage buffers of sufficient
capacity were placed before & after each manual station. Thus, the limiting cycle
time on the line would be
Tc = 30sec = 0.50 min, & the corresponding production rate would be:

Rp = Rc = 1/0.50 = 2.0pc/min
= 120.0 pc/hr

Using the line operating cost from the previous example, Co = $1.32/min, we have
a piece cost of

Cpc = 1.32 (0.50) = $0.66 / pc

Comparing with the previous example, we can see that a dramatic improvement
in production rate & unit cost is achieved through the use of storage buffers.
 Problem on Partial Automation:

A partially automated production line has a mixture of three mechanized

& three
manual workstations. There are a total of six stations, & the ideal cycle time
Tc = 1.0
min, which includes a transfer time Tr = 6 sec. Data on the six stations are
listed in
the following table. Cost of the transfer mechanism Cat = $0.10/min, cost to
run each
automated station Cas = $ 0.12/min, & labour cost to operate each
manual station
Cw = $ 0.17 /min. It has been proposed to substitute an automated
station in place of
station 5. The cost of this station is estimated at
Cas5 = $ 0.25 / min, & its breakdown rate P5 = 0.02, but its process
time would be only 30 sec, thus reducing the overall cycle time of the
line from 1.0 min to 36 sec. Average downtime per breakdown of the
current line as well as the proposed configuration is Td = 3.5 min.
Determine the following for the current line & the proposed line: (a)
production rate, (b) proportion uptime, & (c) cost per unit. Assume the
line operates without storage buffers, so when an automated station
stops, the whole line stops, including the manual stations. Also, in
computing costs, neglect material & tooling costs.

Station Type Process Time (sec) pi

1 Manual 36 0
2 Automatic 15 0.01
3 Automatic 20 0.02
4 Automatic 25 0.01
5 Manual 54 0
6 Manual 33 0

Solution : Tc = 1.0 min

Tp = 1.0 + 2(0.01)x3.5 + 1( 0.02) x 3.5 = 1.14 mins
Rp = 1 = 0.877 pcs /min x 60 = 52.65 pcs / hr
1.14
Cp = 0.12 + 3(0.17) + 3(0.10) = $ 0.93/mins
Cpc = 0.93x 1.14 = $1.062/piece
For the proposed line Tc = 36 secs = 0.6 mins
Tp = 0.6 + 2(0.01)3.5 + 2(0.02)3.5 = 0.81 mins
Rp = 1.234 pieces / min = 74.07 pieces/hr
Cp = 0.012 + 2(0.17) + 3(0.10) + 1(0.25)
= $ 0.902/min Cpc = 0.90 x 0.81 mins = $
0.73062/piece
 UNIT II
POWER POINT PRESENTATION SLIDES
 INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING HISTORY:
 Manufacturing has been a human activity for a very long
time. Ancient man produced stone articles by using his
muscular power.
 Earlier manufacturing remained in the hands of Artisans
and their apprentices and earlier developments in
manufacturing took place in their supervision.
 Probably copper is the first metal melted by man.
Excavations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (5000 BC)
shows the metal and jewellery work. There are examples of
in Greek and Roman civilizations that their craftsman used
casting process.
 Invention of copper, bronze and then Iron age converted
ancient civilization into Indus valley, China, Egypt,
Mesopotamia and Babylon.
 CONTD….
 Concept of machining is
also very old. It is
believed that the idea of
Lathe, the turning
machine has been
derived from the potter s
wheel that existed before
2500 BC.
 The round groove marks
on wooden bowls shows
that turning was practiced
as early as 1700 BC and
was perfected before 6th
century.
 CONTD…
 The concept of tool
angles is also not new.
 The primitive man
started thinking of
tools in which a proper
shaped tool used to be
tied with wooden
branch.
 Later, stone piece was
replaced by the
metallic piece
 CONTD….
 Idea of rotating stone
wheel for producing
sharp edges brought
the concept of
grinding.
 Wheels mounted on
the spindle with crank
for started appearing
around 850 AD
 CONTD…
 The earliest known machine
tool: Lathe (1400 AD) Earlier
alternating motion was given to
wooden work piece and tool
was kept stationary on hands.
 Later a continuous
unidirectional motion was
attempted by winding an
endless rope around a spindle
and passing it over a flywheel
which was rotated by hand.
 Wooden plank lath, so name
Lathe has derived.
 CONTD…
 Drilling was carried by
winding a cord on the
sharp metallic linear piece
and attaching its end to
the rod.
 The art of forge welding
was attempted during
2500 BC but it took a
reasonably better shape
around 1000 BC.
 Use of filler material
 CONTD…
 After the discovery of iron the development of hot
forging, forge welding and grinding became
imperative. The concept of grinding was although
old but giving it unidirectional motion took many
years (1450 AD).
 Many distinguishing features of modern machine
tools were anticipated in design by small scale
clock makers. During 1480 AD a German clock
maker introduced the concept of screw cutting
(quality was poor )on Lathe machine.
 After a long around 1780 AD Ramsden produced
accurate screw thread cutting lathe by producing
 CONTD…

 During the later half of 17th century use of timber

was replaced by coal for iron smelting but it could not
lead to good results because used coal was surface
coal. Thus deeper mining became a necessity but
was a problem as no higher capacity pumps were
available.
 Newcomen’s engine was installed in coal mines but
could not solve the purpose because of their huge
size and inefficiency. James Watt (1762 AD) tried to
solve the problem by using his steam engine up to a
maximum. Watt patented (1769 AD) his engine
however he failed to develop full size engine. His
 CONTD…

 John Wilkinson (1728-1808 AD), the great iron

maker, developed various kinds of water
powered boring machines for producing iron
cannons. He was the only cylinder maker who
could face the challenges made by Watt. In
1775 AD Watt s attempt was successful. Later
Wilkinson used Watt s engine to drive his
boring machine
 CONTD…
 By the end of 18th century the steam engine power
was available in large quantities at many locations
which caused First Industrial Revolution.
 This led to the growth of Production and
Mechanization. The Soho Foundry (LONDON) was
established in 1796 AD with steam engines was
considered as Engineering Workshop of that time. By
1820 AD steam power driven machine tools were
ready for the sale.
 Now the need for high strength material was felt
which was met by Carbon Steels. Liebig (1831 AD)
could perfectly analyze and determine the effect of
 CONTD…
 Henry Maudslay (1771-1831 AD) brought several
new concepts in machine tool design. He
introduced the tool slide and rest with tool head
in 1794 AD. It was equipped with lead screw and
had provision for taper turning. He also produced
number of screw cutting machines. In 1805 AD,
first micrometer was designed by him.
 During 1825-1865 AD machine tools like
planning, shaping, drilling, punching slotting,
milling etc. were developed.
 The need for strong marine vessel led to
introduction of rolling mills that produced iron
 CONTD…
 By the mid of 19th century Britain became the
leading country in science and technology.
 True industrial revolution started when the
concept of mass production was introduced in
1748 AD to lower the production cost so that the
benefits of engineering could reach to common
man.
 Proliferation of machines started and a large
number of special purpose machines, automatic
and semi automatic machines were designed and
developed. The trend was to move towards
 CONTD…
 Whitney introduced the concept of interchangeability
in the end of 18th century.
 This needed more close tolerances therefore need for
high speed stone tools (grinding) felt and
development in precision grinding took place around
1900 AD.
 Significant improvement in welding processes also
took place during this time. Use of metallic molds and
patterns came into scene so that precise casting
could be achieved.
 Polymer products were developed during 1925-1950
 CONTD…
 Second industrial revolution started during mid
of 20th century with the enormous growth in
solid state electronics and computers, that can
perform tasks very rapidly efficiently with lower
cost.
 In this age attempt was to enhance and
sometimes even replace the mental efforts.
The trend was now to move towards flexible
automation.
 Today the era of mass production and hard
automation is going away and is being replaced
 CONTD…

 The first step in this direction is Numerically

Controlled machine tools in which the motion
of slides is controlled by numerals and letters.
The microprocessor based systems and feed
back devices provide better accuracy and
precision.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES (SUMMARIZED)
CONTD…
CONTD…
MODERN MANUFACTURING APPROACHES AND
TECHNOLOGIES

 Automation - automated equipment instead of

labor
 Material handling technologies - because
manufacturing usually involves a sequence of
activities
 Manufacturing systems - integration and
coordination of multiple automated or manual
workstations
 Flexible manufacturing - to compete in the
low-volume/high-mix product categories
 Quality programs - to achieve the high quality
expected by today's customers
 CIM - to integrate design, production, and
 PRODUCTION SYSTEM DEFINED

A collection of people, equipment, and

procedures organized to accomplish the
manufacturing operations of a company
Two categories:
 Facilities – the factory and equipment in the
facility and the way the facility is organized
(plant layout)
 Manufacturing support systems – the set of
procedures used by a company to manage
production and to solve technical and
logistics problems in ordering materials,
moving work through the factory, and
ensuring that products meet quality
THE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Fig. 1.1
 PRODUCTION SYSTEM FACILITIES

Facilities include the factory, production

machines and tooling, material handling
equipment, inspection equipment, and
computer systems that control the
manufacturing operations
 Plant layout – the way the equipment is
physically arranged in the factory
 Manufacturing systems – logical groupings
of equipment and workers in the factory
 Productionline
 Stand-alone workstation and worker
 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Three categories in terms of the human

participation in the processes performed by
the manufacturing system:
1. Manual work systems - a worker performing one or
more tasks without the aid of powered tools, but
sometimes using hand tools
2. Worker-machine systems - a worker operating
powered equipment
3. Automated systems - a process performed by a
machine without direct participation of a human
MANUAL WORK SYSTEM

Fig. 1.2 (a)

WORKER-MACHINE SYSTEM

Fig. 1.2 (b)

AUTOMATED SYSTEM

Fig. 1.2. (c)

 WHAT IS MANUFACTURING?
 The word manufacture is derived from two Latin
words: manus (hand) and factus (make); the
combination means “made by hand”
 “Made by hand” accurately described the
fabrication methods that were used when the
English word “manufacture” was first coined
around 1567 A.D.
 Most modern manufacturing operations are
accomplished by mechanized and automated
equipment that is supervised by human
workers
 MANUFACTURING -
TECHNOLOGICALLY
Application of physical and chemical processes to
alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance
of a starting material to make parts or products
 Manufacturing also includes assembly

 Almost always carried out as a sequence of

operations

Figure 1.3 (a)

Manufacturing
as a technical
process
 PRODUCTION QUANTITY Q

 The quantity of products Q made by a

factory has an important influence on the
way its people, facilities, and procedures
are organized
 Annual production quantities can be
classified into three ranges:
 Production range Annual
Quantity Q
 Low production 1 to 100 units
 Medium production 100 to 10,000
 PRODUCT VARIETY P

 Product variety P refers to different

product types or models produced in
the plant
 Different products have different
features
 Theyare intended for different markets
 Some have more parts than others

 The number of different product

types made each year in a factory
can be counted
 When the number of product types
 MORE ABOUT PRODUCT VARIETY

 Although P is a quantitative parameter, it is much

less exact than Q because details on how much
the designs differ is not captured simply by the
number of different designs
 Soft product variety - small differences between
products, e.g., between car models made on the
same production line, with many common parts
among models
 Hard product variety - products differ
substantially, e.g., between a small car and a
large truck, with few common parts (if any)
 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

 Two basic types:

1. Processing operations - transform a work
material from one state of completion to a
more advanced state
 Operations that change the geometry, properties,
or appearance of the starting material
2. Assembly operations - join two or more
components to create a new entity
 PRODUCTION FACILITIES

 The factory, production equipment, and

material handling systems
 Production facilities "touch" the product
 Includes the way the equipment is arranged in
the factory - the plant layout
 Equipment usually organized into logical
groupings, called manufacturing systems
 Examples:
 Automated production line
 Machine cell consisting of an industrial robot and two
machine tools
PRODUCT VARIETY (P)

 Number of different product or part designs or

types
 ‘Hard’ product variety – products differ greatly
 Few common components in an assembly
 ‘Soft’ product variety – small differences
between products
 Many common components in an assembly
LOW PRODUCTION QUANTITY (QLOW)

Job shop – makes low quantities of specialized

and customized products
 Products are typically complex (e.g.,
specialized machinery, prototypes, space
capsules)
 Equipment is general purpose

 Plant layouts:
 Fixedposition
 Process layout
 MEDIUM PRODUCTION

 Two different types of facility, depending on

product variety:
 Batch production
 Suitedto hard product variety
 Setups required between batches
 Cellular manufacturing
 Suitedto soft product variety
 Worker cells organized to process parts without
setups between different part styles
MEDIUM PRODUCTION QUANTITIES (QMED)

1. Batch production – A batch of a given product is

produced, and then the facility is changed over to
produce another product
 Changeover takes time – setup time
 Typical layout – process layout
 Hard product variety
2. Cellular manufacturing – A mixture of products is
made without significant changeover time
between products
 Typical layout – cellular layout
 Soft product variety
HIGH PRODUCTION (QHIGH)
1. Quantity production – Equipment is dedicated
to the manufacture of one product
 Standard machines tooled for high production
(e.g., stamping presses, molding machines)
 Typical layout – process layout
2. Flow line production – Multiple workstations
arranged in sequence
 Product requires multiple processing or assembly
steps
 Product layout is most common
PRODUCTION FACILITIES AND LAYOUT

 Facilities organised in the most efficient way to

serve the particular mission of the plant and
depends on:
 Typesof products manufactured
 Production quantity

 Product variety
 UNIT II
INDUTRIAL APPLICATIONS
 UNIT II
ASSIGNMET
 Unit-II

1. a). What are the methods used in industry to accomplish the assembly process?

b). What are the two ways in which transfer of workpart takes place between workstations?

2. a). What is Buffer storage? Explain the reasons for the use of Buffer storage zones.

b). What are the methods of transporting work pieces on flow lines? Explain them.

3. The following data apply to a 10-station in-line transfer machine: P = 0.01 (all stations have an
equal probability of failure)

Tc = 0.3 min
Td = 3.0 min
Using the upper-bound approach. Compute the following for the transfer machine:
(i) F, the frequency of line stops.
(ii) (ii) Rp, the average production rate.
(iii) E, the line efficiency.

4. A 30-station transfer line has an ideal cycle time Tc=0.75 min, an average downtime Td = 6.0
min per line stop occurrence, and a station failure frequency p = 0.01 for all stations. A storage
buffer is located between stations 15 and 16 to improve the line efficiency. Using the upper
bound approach, determine

(i). The current line efficiency and production rate.

(ii). Maximum possible line efficiency and production rate because of storage buffer.

5.

a) What is a transfer line? Explain any two work part transfer methods.
b) Write short note on partial automation.
 UNIT II
SHORT ‘Q’ & TUTORIAL
 UNIT-II

1. What is Automated Flow line?

An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations which are
linked together by work handling devices that transfer parts between the stations. The
transfer of work parts occurs automatically and the workstations carry out their
specialized functions automatically.
2. Draw in-line configuration of automated flow line.

3. What are the objectives of flow line automation?

The objectives of the use of flow line automation are
To reduce labor costs

To increase production rates

To reduce work-in-process

To minimize distances moved between operations

4. What is Segmented In-Line Type configuration?

The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-line

arrangement which is usually perpendicular to each other with L-Shaped or U-
shaped or Rectangular shaped.
The flow of work can take a few 90° turns, either for work pieces reorientation,
factory layout limitations, or other reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line
configuration.
5. What is Rotary type configuration?

In the rotary configuration, the work parts are indexed around a circular table or dial.
The workstations are stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of
the dial. The parts ride on the rotating table and arc registered or positioned, in turn,
at each station for its processing or assembly operation.

6. What are the methods of work part transport?

 The general methods of transporting work pieces on flow lines can be
classified into the following three categories:

a) Continuous transfer

b) Intermittent or synchronous transfer

c) Asynchronous or power-and-free transfer

7. What are the Reasons for using storage buffers?

– To reduce effect of station breakdowns
– To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
– To provide a place to put the output of the line
– To allow curing time or other required delay
– To smooth cycle time variations
8. What are the disadvantages of buffer storage on flow lines?
The disadvantages of buffer storage on flow lines are increased factory floor
space, higher in-process inventory, more material handling equipment, and greater
complexity of the overall flow line system.

9. What is Single-station machine?

These mechanized production machines perform several operations on a
single work part which is fixtured in one position throughout the cycle. The operations
are performed on several different surfaces by work heads located around the piece.

10. What is buffer storage?

Automated flow lines are often equipped with additional features beyond the basic transfer
mechanisms and workstations. It is not uncommon for production flow lines to include
storage zones for collecting banks of work parts along the line.