Recording Electrodes–Electrode-tissue interface,

Bioelectric events have to be picked up from the surface of the body before they can be put
into the amplifier for subsequent record or display. This is done by using electrodes.

Electrodes make a transfer from the ionic conduction in the tissue to the electronic
conduction which is necessary for making measurements.

Two types of electrodes are used in practice-surface electrodes and the deep- seated
electrodes. The surface electrodes pick up the potential difference from the tissue surface
when placed over it without damaging the live tissue.

2.1.1 ELECTRODE TISSUE INTERFACE

The most commonly used electrodes in patient monitoring and related studies are surface
electrodes. The notable examples are when they are used for recording ECG, EEG and
respiratory activity by impedance pneumography.

In order to avoid movement artefacts and to obtain a clearly established contact (low contact
impedance) an electrolyte or electrode paste is usually employed as an interface between the
electrode and the surface of the source of the event. Figure 2.7 (a, b) represent the electrode-
tissue interface.
The characteristic of a surface electrode composed of a metal electrode and attached to the
surface of the body through an electrolyte (electrode jelly) are dependent upon the conditions
at the metal-electrolyte interface, the electrolyte-skin interface and the quality of the
electrolyte.
Metal-Electrolyte Interface:

At the metal-electrolyte transition, there is a tendency for each electrode to discharge ions
into the solution and for ions in the electrolyte to combine with each electrode. The net result
is the creation of a charge gradient (difference of potential) at each electrode, the spatial
arrangement of which is called the electrical double layer (Fig. 2.7(c)). The double layer is
known to be present in the region immediately adjacent to the electrode and can be
represented, in its simplest form, as two parallel sheets of charge of opposite sign separated
by a thin film of dielectric. Therefore, the metal-electrolyte interface appears to consist of a
voltage source in series with a parallel combination of a capacitance and reaction resistance.
The voltage developed is called the half-cell potential.
 Electrolyte-Skin Interface:

An approximation of the electrolyte-skin interface can be had by assuming that the skin acts
as a diaphragm arranged between two solutions (electrolyte and body fluids) of different
concentrations containing the same ions, which is bound to give potential differences.

The simplest equivalent representation could then be described as a voltage source in series
with a parallel combination of a capacitance and resistance. The capacitance represents the
charge developed at the phase boundary whereas the resistance depends upon the conditions
associated with ion-migration along the phase boundaries and inside the diaphragm.
The above discussion shows that there is a possibility of the presence of voltages of
Non physiological origin. These voltages are called contact potentials.

The contact potential depends upon several factors and may produce an interference signal
which exceeds several times the useful signal. The contact potential is found to be a function
of the type of skin, skin preparation and composition of the electrolyte.

The electrodes are used to measure a bioelectric event and are connected to a differential
amplifier. Three potentials are found to exist in this circuit (Fig. 2.9), one is due to the
bioelectric event (Eb) and the other two are non-physiologicand represent the half-cell
potentials (E1 and E2) of the electrodes. Z1 and Z2 are the skin contact impedances of these
electrodes and R is the tissue resistance or resistance of the bioelectric generator.
This circuit shows that the impedance of the electrodes would be high in the low frequency
region and it would decrease with increasing frequency. It is further clear that in the
measurement of a bioelectric signal, it is essential to minimize potential drops across the
electrode impedance. This is achieved by making the skin-contact impedance as low as
possible and making the input impedance of the measuring device as high as possible.
POLARISATION

If a low voltage is applied to two electrodes placed in a solution, the electrical double layers
are disturbed. Depending on the metals constituting the electrodes, a steady flow of current
may or may not take place.

In some metal/liquid interfaces, the electrical double layer gets temporarily disturbed by the
externally applied voltage, and therefore, a very small current flows after the first surge, thus
indicating a high resistance. This type of electrode will not permit the measurement of steady
or slowly varying potentials in the tissues.

They are said to, be polarized or nonreversible. Thus, the phenomenon of polarization affects
the electro-chemical double layer on the electrode surface and manifests itself in changing the
value of the impedance and voltage source representing the transition layer.

Parsons (1964) stated that electrodes in which no net transfer of charge takes place across the
metal-electrolyte interface can be termed as perfectly polarized. Those in which unhindered
exchange of charge is possible are called non-polarizable or reversible electrodes. The ionic
double layer in metals of these electrodes is such that they allow considerable current to flow
when a small voltage is applied, thus offering a low resistance.

SKIN CONTACT IMPEDANCE:

Measurement of Skin Contact Impedance: A convenient method to measure the contact

impedance at any individual electrode is shown in Fig. 2.11.

The three electrodes, A, B and C, have contact impedance respectively of Za, Zb andZc. An
oscillator provides a constant current in the frequency range of 0.1–100 Hz through the 47
kW series resistor.

By suitably positioning the switch, a sensitive oscilloscope can be used to monitor either the
voltage dropped across the 1 kW resistor or the voltage dropped across Zb.

The voltage drop across Zb can be neglected since the input impedance of the oscilloscope
used with an input probe is usually high. From the voltage dropped across the 1 kW resistor
it is possible to calculate the circuit current and thus to obtain a value for Zc.

Using this technique, the skin contact impedance of the following types of electrodes were
measured by Hill and Khandpur (1969).
• Plastic cup self-adhesive electrodes (Boter et al, 1966)

• Metal plate limb electrodes used with conducting jelly

• Metal plate electrodes used with conducting plastic (Jenkner, 1967)

• Dry multi-point limb electrodes (Lewes, 1966)

• Dry multi-point suction chest electrodes

• Self-adhesive multi-point chest electrodes used with conducting jelly

• Self-adhesive gauze electrodes

• Self-adhesive dry multi-point chest electrodes (Lewes and Hill, 1967)

Motion Artifacts

Motion artefact is a problem in biopotential measurements. The problem is greatest in cardiac

stress laboratories where the exercise ECG is recorded. The problem is also serious in
coronary care units where patients are monitored for relatively long periods.

Motion of the subject under measurement creates artefacts which may even mask the desired
signal or cause an abrupt shift in the baseline. These artefacts may result in a display being
unreadable, a recording instrument exceeding its range, a computer yielding incorrect output
or a false alarm being triggered by the monitoring device.

Tam and Webster (1977) concluded that the skin-electrolytic paste interface is the major
source of motion artefact. When a metal electrode contacts an electrolytic paste, a half cell
potential is generated at the electrode-paste interface. Kahn (1965) demonstrated that when
polarizable metal-plate electrodes are used, the electrode-paste interface can be a source of
motion artefact.

When the paste is agitated, the half-cell potential varies because of the altered metallic ion
gradient at the interface. He recorded a 1 mV offset potential change from a silver-silver
chloride electrode exposed to a flowing stream of saline solution, as contrasted to 30 mV
change for some silver electrodes.

Motion artefact is reduced to a negligible magnitude by skin abrasion. However, when the
skin is abraided, it is more susceptible to irritants. The possible sources for skin irritation
include the electrode, the paste and the adhesive. When large currents flow through metallic
electrodes, migration of some ions into the skin can cause irritation.