3.

Receiver and Transmitter

- Units
- Noise, Interference and Distortion
- Transmitter
- Receiver
 LOGARITHMIC SCALE

Decibel (dB) is a convenient

20 dB [ 100 / 1 ]
unit for expressing the ratio
of two quantities.

x = 10 log10 ( P / Po ) 10 dB [ 10 / 1 ]

where: 3 dB [ 2 / 1 ]
x is in dB
0 dB [ 1 / 1 ]
dB has no dimension
20 dB means 100:1

- 3 dB [ 0.5 / 1 ]
 30 dBm [ 1W / 1mW ]

dBm
20 dBm [ 0.1W / 1mW ]

dBm =
Decibel unit in reference to 10 dBm [ 10mW / 1mW ]
a power unit which is 1mW.
3 dBm [ 2mW / 1mW ]
x = 10 log10 ( P / 1mW )
0 dBm [ 1mW / 1mW ]
where: - 3 dBm [ 0.5mW / 1mW ]
x is in dBm

- 50 dBm [ W / 1mW ]

- 75 dBm [ 0.032nW / 1mW ]

- 110 dBm [ 0.01pW / 1mW ]

 dBi vs dBd

dBi is a unit to measure antenna gain

in reference to an isotropic antenna.
An isotropic antenna has a power gain
of unity; i.e., O dBi.

dBd is a unit to measure antenna gain in

reference to a lossless half-wave dipole
antenna. A lossless half-wave dipole
antenna has a power gain of 0 dBd.

CONVERSION FACTOR:

dBi = dBd + 2.15 dB

id
 EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER
ERP vs EiRP
ERP (Effective Radiated Power): is the radiated power (transmit power
times antenna gain) with respect to a dipole antenna within a given
geographic area.
EiRP (Effective Isotropic Radiated Power): is the radiated power from
an isotropic antenna.

EiRP = ERP + 2.15 (dB)

Lp
EiRP SSdesign
The power radiated by the antenna is given by:
PoutBTS - LcBTS-LfBTS
However, since antennas have gain, concentrating the radiation in a certain
direction, the effective radiated power, ERP, or EiRP, is often used to describe
the antenna since adding the path loss (and receiving antenna gain and feeder
loss) to the EiRP yields the Received Signal Strength (RSS).

Hence:

EiRP = PoutBTS - LcBTS - LfBTS + GaBTS

SSdesign = EiRP - Lp

Note that in Hata’s paper, every calculation is done with respect to an isotropic
antenna. Therefore, if we use Hata’s model for propagation loss, we should use
antenna gains in dBi.
 Receiver and Transmitter

Antenna Antenna

Data Tx Rx Data
Channel

PA LNA
Simplified Transceiver Architecture
 Modern Transmitter Architectures

⚫ Modern transmitters maximize both spectral efficiency and electrical efficiency.

⚫ Spectral efficiency is achieved by suppressing the carrier on transmit and
transmitting a single sideband. The classic technique for achieving this is
quadrature modulation.
⚫ Electrical efficiency must be achieved with tight specifications on allowable
distortion and designs must achieve this with minimum manual adjustments.

Quadrature Modulator
General Modulation Formula:
s(t ) = i(t ) cos[ct + i (t )] + q(t ) sin[ct + q (t )]
i(t) and q(t) for amplitude, φi(t) and φq(t) for phase. ωc is carrier frequency.
s (t ) = a (t ) + b(t )
a (t ) = i (t ) cos[c t + i (t )]
b(t ) = q (t ) sin[ c t +  q (t )]
 Modern Transmitter Architectures
Quadrature Modulator

This type modulation is called suppressed carrier single-sideband modulation (SCSS).

➢ In the modulation the carrier is canceled as it contains no information.
➢ Only one side band is transmitted. It contains all of the information.
 Receivers / Transmitters
Modern Transmitter Architectures
Quadrature Modulator Using Data

I
i(t) a(t)
cos( (t))

SERIAL BIT
STREAM WAVEFORM
(t)
SHAPING s(t)
VCO
90

Could be done in DSP sin((t))

q(t) b(t)
with DAC to produce i(t)
and q(t). Q
 Transceiver

Role of a Transmitter Information

HPMX-2007

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Antenna DSP

Power Amplifier Baseband

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Oscillator
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 Role of a Receiver
Information
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HPMX-2007

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Low Noise Amplifier

A Q Data
D
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with min. added noise
Oscillator
bias bias bias

3. LO for down conversion Power Supply

 Receivers / Transmitters
Fundamentals of Demodulator
Quadrature demodulator with IF

Typical Quadrature demodulator with IF

The mixer here is an ideal multiplier

IF LO RF
 Modern Receiver Architectures
Zero−IF Receiver

⚫ The zero-IF receiver is called also homodyne receiver or direct-conversion

receiver.
⚫ The advantage for this kind of receiver are as following
➢ The channel filtering can be performed by a low pass filter instead of more
complex band pass filter which is hard to implemented in the integrated
circuit.
➢ The image problem is eliminated due to zero-IF so that external high-Q
image rejection filter is not needed. It makes fully integrated solutions
feasible.
 Modern Receiver Architectures
Zero−IF Receiver

⚫ There are disadvantages for zero-IF receiver :

➢ DC offsets
➢ I/Q mismatch
➢ Even-order distortion
➢ Flick noise
➢ LO leakage
 Low−IF Receiver

In a low-IF receiver, single stage mixing converts the signal to a frequency just
above DC, perhaps to a few hundred kilohertz or a few megahertz to avoid the DC
offset problem.
 Modern Receiver Architectures
Subsampling receiver

⚫ Subsampling ADC could overcome the DC offset problem

⚫ The idea is to sample the modulated RF signal using an exact sub-harmonic of
the carrier of the RF signal to be converted.
⚫ The sampling rate must be at least twice the bandwidth of the baseband signal.
⚫ It is critical that an RF preselect filter is used to eliminate unwanted interference
and noise outside the communication band.
 Modern Receiver Architectures
Digital-IF Receiver

⚫ To make systems more flexible IF is transferred into the digital domain by using
ADC.
⚫ Signal processing is performed in digital domain as much as possible.
 Modern Receiver Architectures
“Software Radio”
Challenge architecture in receiver: Most works are done in DSP
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

⚫ Noise, interference and distortion are major concerns for RF Design (e.g.
Receivers, Transmitters)
⚫ Signal to noise ratio is an important parameter in RF design.
Shannon theorem:
S
C = B log 2 (1 + )
N

⚫ Analog Radio
⚫ Usually analog signal is power signal. Power is more meaningful than
energy .
⚫ The signal to noise ratio (SNR) is a very useful parameter in analog radio.
⚫ SNR is defined as:
⚫ SNR = S/N=Signal power(Watt) /Total noise power(Watt).
⚫ The noise is due to background noise sources, including thermal noise,
etc.
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

⚫ In receiver chain, the input SNR (SNRi) to output SNR (SNRo) ratio
is called the noise factor , F:
SNRi
F=
SNRo

⚫ When expressed in decibels, the noise figure (NF) is used:

NF = 10 log 10 F = SNRi (dB ) − SNRo (dB )
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

• Thermal Noise
Thermal noise voltage across an resistor R is given by
V = 4kTRB
where
V : Therms noise voltage in volts
k : Boltzmann' s constant = 1.38 10 -23 j / Kelvin
T : the absolute temperature in Kelvin( o C + 273)
R : the resistance in ohm
B : the bandwidth in hertz
V2
Noise Power : N = = kTB
4R
 Noise, Interference and Distortion
Si / Ni
F=
So / No
Si = Ni  F  SNRo
Ni = kTB

Sensitivity (dBm) = 10 LOG10 Si (mW ) = 10 LOG10 ( KT ) + 10 LOG10 B ( Hz ) + NF (dB ) + SNRo (dB )

For a room temperature 17 o C. T = 290 Kelvin

10 Log 10 KT = −174 dBm

Sensitivity (dBm) = −174dBm + 10 Log10 B ( Hz ) + NF (dB ) + SNRo (dB )

= Noise Floor + SNRo (dB )
where
Noise Floor = −174 dBm + 10 Log 10 B ( Hz ) + NF (dB )

⚫ As NF increases, the sensitivity gets worse.

⚫ As B increases, the sensitivity gets worse
⚫ As SNRo increases, the sensitivity gets worse.
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

⚫ Digital Radio
⚫ Usually digital signal is energy signal. Symbol energy or bit
energy is more suitable than power.
⚫ In digital radio Eb/N0 is useful parameter instead of SNR. The
Eb is the energy per bit (Joule/bit) and N0 is the noise power
per hertz (Watt/Hz=Joule) . The is called SNR per bit , bit SNR,
or normalized SNR.
 Noise, Interference and Distortion
⚫ The relationship between Eb/N0 and SNR is given by:
Eb ( Joule / bit ) S (Watt )Tb ( Sec / bit ) S (Watt ) BN (1 / s)
= =  ~ SNR/bit
N 0 ( Joule) N (Watt ) / BN ( Hz ) N (Watt ) Rb (bit / s )
E b : Signal energy per bit in Joule( J )
N 0 : Noise power ( Joule / s ) per Hz (1 / s) in Joule(J)
S : Signal power in Watt
N : Total noise power in Watt.
B N : Noise bandwidth in Hz (1 / s )
Tb : Duration time per bit (s / bit )
Rb = 1 / Tb : Bit rate in bit / s
Watt = Joule / s
⚫ The spectral efficiency is defined as :
Rb (bit / s ) SNR
Spectral efficiency = = (bit / s ) / Hz ~ bit
BN ( Hz = 1 / s) Eb / N 0
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

⚫ The spectral efficiency is defined as :

Rb (bit / s ) SNR
Spectral efficiency = = ((bit / s ) / Hz )
BN ( Hz = 1 / s) Eb / N 0

Spectral efficiency
◆the information rate that can be
transmitted over a given bandwidth in a
specific communication system.
◆It is a measure of how efficiently a limited
frequency spectrum is utilized by the
physical layer protocol。
◆It is measured in bit/s/Hz or in (bit/s)/Hz.
◆It is the net bit rate in bit/s divided by the
bandwidth in hertz of a communication
channel.
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

⚫ In digital transmission, the probability of bit error (Pe) or bit error rate (BER) is
usually used to measure deterioration.
➢ the number of bit errors is the number of received bits that have been
altered due to noise, interference, distortion or bit synchronization errors.
➢ The bit error rate or bit error ratio (BER) is the number of bit errors divided
by the total number of transferred bits during a studied time interval. BER
is often expressed as a percentage.
➢ In a noisy channel, the BER is often expressed as a function of the Eb/N0,
(energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio), or Es/N0 (energy per
modulation symbol to noise spectral density).
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

⚫ The bit error probability pe (BER) in an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
environment with respect to the Eb/N0 is given by:

2 Eb
Pe ( M )  Q( ) for BPSK and QPSK
N0
Eb
Pe ( M )  Q( ) for OOK and FSK
N0
 u2
1 − 1 x
Q( x) =  e 2
du = erfc ( )
x 2 2 2

2
erfc ( x) =  e −u du = 1 - erf(x)
2

x 
(the complementary error function)
x
2
erf ( x) =  e −u 2
du
0  BER decreases (gets better) with the Eb/N0
(the error function)
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

Example for WLAN

◆Sensitivity is -94dBm for 1Mbps

◆Sensitivity is around -91dBm for 2Mbps (10log102=3dB）
◆Sensitivity is around -87dBm for 5.5 Mbps (10log105.5=7.4dB）
◆Sensitivity is around -84 dBm for 11 Mbps (10log1011=10.4dB）

Sensitivity (dBm) = −174dBm + NF (dB ) + 10 Log 10 Rb (bits / s ) + Eb / N 0 (dB )

 Noise, Interference and Distortion

• Distortion
– In-Band: Intermodulation, Noise, Bit Errors
– Out-of-Band: Spectral Regrowth, Affect on other radios
 Noise, Interference and Distortion

Distortion
Ideally an amplifier is assumed as a linear system:
x(t) y(t)

y (t ) = ax(t )
y(t)
Practically it is a nonlinear system:
x(t)
y(t ) = a1 x(t ) + a2 x 2 (t ) + a3 x3 (t ) +   
Simply it limited to three terms

y(t )  a1 x(t ) + a2 x 2 (t ) + a3 x3 (t )
 Noise, Interference and Distortion
Distortion
y(t)
x(t) y(t)
x(t)

Output (especially):
Intermodulation
3 3
21 − 2 = 1 −  : a3 A3 cos(21 − 2 )t = a3 A3 cos(1 −  )t
4 4
3 3
22 − 1 = 2 +  : a3 A3 cos(22 − 1 )t ) = a3 A3 cos(2 +  )t
4 4

Corruption of a signal due to

intermodulation between two
interferers
 Noise, Interference and Distortion
Cascaded network
Noise Factor of Cascaded Network (3 stages)
F2 − 1 F3 − 1 F4 − 1
Ftotal = F1 + + +
g1 g1 g 2 g1 g 2 g 3
Fn = numeric noise factor of each stage
g n = numeric gain factor of each stage
Example for noise figure calculation
Stage1 Stage2 Stage3
NF1=2dB NF2=7dB NF3=15dB
Gain1=7dB Gain2=10dB Gain3=10dB
THANK YOU