Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

CHAPTER II

POWERS IN SINGLE PHASE SYSTEMS

Electrical power is an essential quantity when you want to create or size an electrical installation.
Indeed, it is not enough to have electrical devices and to supply them with any voltage, you must
actually respect the modes for which these devices were designed.
Also, each electrical machine has a nameplate fixed in a clearly visible place on its casing and
indicating the speed for which it was designed.
This mode is called "nominal": it indicates first the voltage, the frequency, the power then the power
factor, the rotation speed (for a rotating machine), the efficiency etc. Knowledge of the nominal
values of a machine is necessary for its correct use which ensures its proper functioning without
failure, within the limits of the established time (lifespan). For example, the currents and powers
must not be exceeded under penalty of damaging the machine (the machine is "burned out" under
these conditions), or in certain cases not be below the nominal value under penalty of poor
performance of the machine. In summary, one must remain, if possible, around the nominal current
provided for better use. This value is always indicated by the manufacturer.
Furthermore, the sinusoidal mode which gives rise to unavoidable phase shifts between currents
and voltages, involves two forms of power: active power (linked to purely resistive consumption)
and reactive power (linked to purely inductive or capacitive consumption). By separating the two
forms of power, simple resolution methods emerge for any electrical installation using a sinusoidal
source.
Note that even the choice of power cables for an installation must meet the criterion of "permissible
current" (the cable section must be chosen according to the current absorbed by the installation).
Calculating the power of the installation is then essential to be able to make this choice.

I- Introduction

The power within a generator (or a receiver) that is supplied by a voltage V with an
electrical current I is given by:

𝑃 = 𝑉. 𝐼

Receiver Generator

Let's take the example of a DC motor (which is a receiver), supplied with a voltage of
200V and whose plate indicates a mechanical power Pmec of 1.8kW for an efficiency of
0.9. To determine what nominal current it will absorb, we should first remember that the
efficiency of a motor is given by:

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐
𝜂𝑚 =
𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐

And since the motor is a DC motor, we can express the electrical power by:

𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 = 𝑉. 𝐼

Consequently:

𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 1800

𝜂𝑚 = = ⟹𝐼= = = 10𝐴
𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 𝑉. 𝐼 𝑉. 𝜂𝑚 200.0,9

For a direct current generator, the expression of efficiency is reversed since the generator
absorbs mechanical power and supplies electrical power:

𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 𝑉. 𝐼
𝜂𝑔 = =
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐

If the efficiency of this generator is 0.8 and if the plate indicates an electrical power of 2kW, for a
voltage of 200V, the generator absorbs a current and a mechanical power of:

𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 2000
𝐼= = = 10𝐴
𝑉 200

𝑃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 2000
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 = = = 2500 𝑊
𝜂𝑔 0,8

II- Powers in sinusoidal domain:

Unlike the case of continuous mode, currents and voltages are not only variable as a function of
time but in most cases they present phase shifts which lead to a power which cannot be constant in
time. Also, it is necessary to return to the instantaneous expressions of voltages and currents to
express the power at each instant and thus release an average power capable of being transformed
into another form of energy (see examples above for direct current).

1) Intantaneous power

In the case where a receiver is supplied by

a voltage v(t), it consumes, depending on the
elements which constitute it, a current j(t),
it therefore absorbs at each instant the
instantaneous power defined by:

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑗(𝑡)

If the voltage is sinusoidal, the expression of p(t) becomes:

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑉√2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑉 ). 𝐽√2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝐽 )=2V.J.𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑉 ). 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝐽 )

Using the properties of trigonometric functions , the expression of p(t) can be written as :

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑉. 𝐽. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑𝐼 − 𝜑𝑉 ) − 𝑉. 𝐽𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑉 + 𝜑𝐽 )

We can observe that the absorbed power is composed of two terms: the first,
independent of time and always positive, then the second, sinusoidal, with a frequency
twice that of the network frequency. The second term depends on time and changes sign
at each half-period: we call this quantity the fluctuating power because it expresses a
power absorbed then restored, then absorbed etc.

2) Active power :

In sinusoidal mode, active power is

defined as the average value of the
instantaneous power over a period
(figure opposite). This is therefore a
power which corresponds to a real
supply of energy transmitted to the
receiver and convertible to heat for
example. Otherwise stated, what
expresses the consumption or not of
power is not its instantaneous value,
but its average value.

The expression of the average or active power is given in all generality by:

1 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝑃= ∫ 𝑝(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑣(𝑡)𝑗(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑇 )

In the particular case of a sinusoidal regime, the result of the integral gives:

𝑃 = 𝑉. 𝐽. 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜑𝐽 − 𝜑𝑉 ) = 𝑉. 𝐽 cos 𝜑 [𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔]

Let's take the example of a motor powered under the voltage of 400V, 50Hz and suppose
that its efficiency is 0.9 for a useful (mechanical) power of 7.2kW and that cos φ is equal

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

to 0.8. The absorbed current is calculated in the same way as for the direct current motor
except that the cos φ factor must be taken into consideration :

𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐 7200

𝜂𝑚 = = ⟹𝐽= = = 12.5 𝐴
𝑃 𝑉. 𝐽. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑉. 𝜂𝑚 . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 400.0,8.0,9

It should be noted that active power is expressed in Watts, to differentiate it from other types of power
reactive and apparent (read the following paragraphs).

3) Apparent power and reactive power:

For non-consuming elements such as the inductor for example, the instantaneous power
is sometimes positive (the inductance charges with current, thus drawing energy from
the circuit), sometimes negative (the inductance restores energy to the electrical circuit),
it is a fluctuating power. To understand this phenomenon, let's represent the
instantaneous value of the power for two extreme cases: the purely resistive load and the
purely reactive load (capacitive in the case presented):

𝜋
φ=0 φ= 2

𝜋
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉√2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) , 𝑗(𝑡) = 𝐽√2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉√2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) , 𝑗(𝑡) = 𝐽√2𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 2 )

There is a fundamental difference between the two situations. In first case (φ=0), we can clearly
see that the average power over a period is non-zero and that the instantaneous power is always
positive. However, there is a fluctuating component, which is due to the periodic nature of the
instantaneous power.
In the second case, the power’s mean value is zero and o conversion is possible unlike the

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

previous case. However, even if no active power is involved, a ‘real’ current exists in this type of
circuits. It is therefore a question of associating with these a power called ‘reactive’, and
quantify it with respect to the electrical equations from the generalized ohm law. Indeed, let’s
suppose we supply a receiver under a voltage 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉√2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑉 ), with an electrical
current 𝑗(𝑡) = 𝐽√2𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑉 ), which in the complex domain leads to:

𝑉̅ = 𝑉𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝑉
𝐽 ̅ = 𝐽𝑒 𝑗𝜑𝐽

If we multiply the complex current by 𝑉̅ , we can obtain an expression that illustrates what we
call the complex apparent power ( referred to as : 𝑆̅ ) and that is absorbed by the receiver :

𝑆̅ = 𝑉̅ 𝐽 ̅ ⟹𝑉̅ = 𝑉𝑒 −𝑗𝜑𝑉

By developing the expression of 𝑆̅ , we have:

̅𝐽̅ = (𝑉𝑒−𝑗𝜑𝑉 )(𝐽𝑒𝑗𝜑𝐽 ) = 𝑉. 𝐽𝑒 𝑗(𝜑𝐽 −𝜑𝑉) = 𝑉𝐽𝑒𝑗𝜑 = 𝑉. 𝐽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑗𝑉. 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑

𝑆̅ = 𝑉

Therefore, we consider that the real part of the complex apparent power represents the
active power and we define the expression of the imaginary part of 𝑆̅ as being the reactive
power, noted Q. So, the complex expression of the apparent power is the following

𝑆̅ = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄

Where P= 𝑉. 𝐽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 and Q=𝑉. 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑

Important !

Since apparent and reactive powers are not convertible powers, they are not expressed with the
same units as active power.
• The unit of apparent power is the Volt-Ampere or VA
• The unit of reactive power is the VAR or Volt-Ampere-Reactive.

To summarize, we have:

P=VJcosφ [𝑾] 𝐐 = 𝐕𝐉𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛗 [𝑽. 𝑨. 𝑹] S=√𝑷𝟐 + 𝑸𝟐

It should also be noted that even if pure capacitors or pure inductors do not consume any

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

active energy, it remains the case that a real current flows through them and that it is
essential to quantify their consumption in any circuit. It is precisely the reactive power
that illustrates this consumption: a capacitor that consumes a current of 10A for example
is certainly different from a capacitor absorbing a current of 100A!
In practice, we will see that the role of reactive power is decisive in the phenomena of
electromagnetic conversion of energy. For example, it is thanks to reactive or magnetic
power that we can make transformers, motors, etc.
Reactive power can also cause inconveniences such as causing voltage drops in the lines
(inductive losses) or on the contrary causing high over-voltages (capacitive effect or
Ferranti effect) in long high voltage lines, but that is another story...
It should also be noted that, in practice, determining the apparent power consumed by a
group of receivers makes it possible to effectively deduce the overall current absorbed
and therefore leads to practical and fast dimensioning of the sections of the power cables.

4) Active and reactive currents

The effective active currents Ja and reactive currents Jr are defined as:

𝐽𝑎 = 𝐽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝐽𝑟 = 𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑

The real current J is called apparent current, since it is directly related to the apparent power.
Taking 𝜑𝑉 = 0 ,the complex current is expressed as:

𝐽 ̅ = 𝐽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 𝑗𝐽𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = 𝐽𝑎 + 𝑗𝐽𝑟

5) Complex representations of powers and currents :

By taking 𝜑𝑉 = 0, we can illustrate the powers and

currents (see opposite Figure). The real axis becomes
the active power or P axis, and the imaginary axis
becomes that of the reactive powers Q. We then have:

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐽𝑎 and 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐽𝑟

Important !

If the voltage is not the origin of the phases, the

active and reactive currents are determined by
the projections of 𝑱̅ on the collinear axis with V
(and which will then be the P axis) then on the
perpendicular axis to the P axis and which
will be the Q axis (see opposite figure).

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

The real and imaginary parts have no physical

meaning in this case, unlike Ja and Jr which
represent the active and reactive powers
respectively.

6) Power factor :

If there is one factor that is important in electrical energy dimensioning and

management techniques, it is the power factor. This is determined by the quotient of
active power by apparent power.
In sinusoidal mode, the value of this ratio is quite simply the cosφ imposed by the
consumer.
In fact, the two active and reactive currents are composed vectorially to form the apparent
current as we established above. The latter is out of phase by the angle φ relative to the active
current. It is this apparent current which flows through the various conductors of the circuit,
from the source to the receiver inclusive, and which causes, among other things, active energy
losses by Joule effect in the power cables.

It should not be forgotten that if the consumer is free to consume the quantity of energy
he wants, he only pays for the amount of active energy he consumes. Thus, for the same
amount of energy consumed, a bad power factor (i.e. low) leads to a much higher apparent
current than for a good power factor (close to unity). This current therefore leads not only
to unnecessary heating of the lines, but also to voltage drops (just as unnecessary!).

Example:

P=1000 W (with compensiation) P=1000 W (without compensiation)

V=200V V=200V

Cosφ=0.9 Cosφ=0.5

𝑷 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑱 = 𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎.𝟎,𝟗 = 𝟓, 𝟓𝟓 𝑨 𝑷 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑱= = = 𝟓, 𝟓𝟓 𝑨
𝑽𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝟎, 𝟗

In reality, most of electrical energy receivers that are used in industry consist of electric
motors and other electromagnetic devices and mechanisms that require the production of
magnetic flux for their operation. This flux can only be produced when the circuit has an
inductive component of the current. In addition, the power factor depends strongly on the
regime imposed on the electrical machines.
For example, when running at no load, the cosφ of a motor varies between 0.1 and 0.3 (which
is particularly low), and under nominal load between 0.8 and 0.85.
To improve the power factor, we can:

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

1) Increase the load on the motors and maintain it at a level close to the nominal load,
2) Replace low-load motors with lower-power motors so that they can operate under
loads close to the nominal value,
3) Install a compensation system which can be:
▪ A synchronous motor which, for sufficiently high excitation, causes a reactive current
in advance of the voltage (see synchronous compensators)
▪ A battery of capacitors connected in parallel to produce a current ahead of the voltage.

If all these measures are not taken by manufacturers, a poor power factor causes the
electricity distribution company (SONELGAZ) many inconveniences:
• A need for larger alternators and transformers
• have a higher voltage at the start of the line
• have lines of larger section
• higher Joule losses
• larger control, protection and cut-off devices

Finally, there is a threshold that must not be crossed: a control of the cosφ can be carried
out by the distribution company. This involves placing reactive energy counters at the
level of factories or industrialists. If excessive consumption is noted, the customer will
have to pay an additional tax to the distribution company. Finally, the consumer will have
the choice between :

• Pay a tax
• Raising your power factor using compensation techniques described above.

7) Boucherot method :
As a whole, an AC network distributes active power and reactive power. If the network
has n consumers, we are dealing with an overall consumption of active and reactive
power.
The Boucherot method is based on the balance of active and reactive powers absorbed by any
installation.
Boucherot's theorem is stated as follows:
"Whatever the grouping, the total active power brought into play is equal to the arithmetic sum of
the partial active powers, and the total reactive power is the algebraic sum of the partial reactive
powers."

Boucherot's theorem can be represented by the diagram below which shows ‘n’ receivers
each consuming its active power and its reactive power:

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

In other words, the active powers are added together :

𝑷𝒕 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑷𝒏

And the reactive powers are added together :

𝑸𝒕 = 𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑸𝒏

If the supply voltage of all the receivers is precisely the voltage of the supply network V,
(for example 220V), we can determine the overall power of the installation and deduce
the overall consumed current J, which will allow the electrician to choose the appropriate
section for the entire installation. This method is therefore widely used in practice and it
even allows the overall power factor to be determined especially when compensation is
needed. Therefore, it consists of determining the following:

𝑃𝑡 = ∑ 𝑃𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑄𝑡 = ∑ 𝑄𝑖
𝑖=1

We deduce :

𝑆𝑡 = √𝑃𝑡 2 + 𝑄𝑡 2

And the current J:

𝑆𝑡
𝑆𝑡 = 𝑉. 𝐽 ⟹ 𝐽 =
𝑉

And the power factor :

𝑃𝑡
cos 𝜑𝑡 =
𝑆𝑡

Note :

The permissible current criterion for cable sizing is not sufficient. Other criteria (in
particular voltage drop) must be taken into account when choosing the sections.

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

8) Calculating powers in R-L-C based circuits :

In any case, it should not be forgotten that the phase shift between the voltage and the
current is imposed by the impedance 𝑍̅, which translates, given the chosen sign conventions,
as we saw above by:
𝑅 𝑋
𝜑 = −𝜑𝑍 ⟹cosφ= 𝑍 and sinφ=- 𝑍

Here are the equations associated to each electrical circuit along with the complex and
vectorial representations of each:

• Purely resistive circuit :

𝟐
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐
̅ = 𝑹 ⟹ 𝝋 = −𝝋𝒁 = 𝟎 ⟹ {𝑷 = 𝑽. 𝑱 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋 = 𝑽. 𝑱 = 𝑹𝑱𝑱 = 𝑹𝑱 = 𝑹 ( ) =
𝒁 𝑹𝟐 𝑹
𝑸 = 𝑽. 𝑱𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 = 𝟎

• R-L Circuit

𝑳𝝎
̅ = 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑳𝝎 ⟹ 𝝋 = −𝝋𝒁 = −𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒈 ( )
𝒁
𝑹

𝑹 𝑹 𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽. 𝑱 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋 = 𝑽. 𝑱 = 𝒁𝑱𝟐 = 𝑹𝑱𝟐 = 𝑹 𝟐
⟹ 𝒁 𝒁 𝒁
𝑳𝝎 𝟐
𝑳𝝎 𝟐
𝑽𝟐
{ 𝑸 = 𝑽. 𝑱𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 = −𝑽. 𝑱 ( ) = −𝒁𝑱 = −𝑳𝝎𝑱 = −𝑳𝝎
𝒁 𝒁 𝒁𝟐

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

• R-C Circuit

𝒋 𝟏
̅ = 𝑹−
𝒁 ⟹ 𝝋 = 𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒈 ( )
𝑪𝝎 𝑹𝑪𝝎

𝑹 𝑹 𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽. 𝑱 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋 = 𝑽. 𝑱 = 𝒁𝑱𝟐 = 𝑹𝑱𝟐 = 𝑹 𝟐
⟹ 𝒁 𝒁 𝒁
𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝑽𝟐
{ 𝑸 = 𝑽. 𝑱𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 = 𝑽. 𝑱 ( ) = 𝒁𝑱 = 𝑱 =
𝑪𝝎𝒁 𝑪𝝎𝒁 𝑪𝝎 𝑪𝝎𝒁𝟐

• R-L-C Circuit

𝟏 𝑿
̅ = 𝑹 + 𝒋 (𝑳𝝎 −
𝒁 ) = 𝑹 + 𝒋𝑿 ⟹ 𝝋 = −𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒕𝒈 ( )
𝑪𝝎 𝑹

𝑹 𝑹 𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽. 𝑱 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝋 = 𝑽. 𝑱= 𝒁𝑱𝟐 = 𝑹𝑱𝟐 = 𝑹 𝟐
⟹ 𝒁 𝒁 𝒁
𝑿 𝟐
𝑿 𝟐
𝑽𝟐
{𝑸 = 𝑽. 𝑱𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋 = −𝑽. 𝑱 = −𝒁𝑱 = −𝑿𝑱 = −𝑿
𝒁 𝒁 𝒁𝟐

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

Case of inductive effect Case of capacitive effect

𝟏 𝟏
𝑳𝝎 ≥ 𝑪𝝎⟹ X≥ 𝟎⟹ φ≤ 𝟎 𝑳𝝎 ≤ 𝑪𝝎⟹ X≤ 𝟎⟹ φ≥ 𝟎

Note :

In the case of R-L-C circuits, we could have either an inductive or a capacitive effect,

therefore , we don’t have a complex representation unless we know which effect is dominant

as illustrated below :

III) Voltage drop in electrical wires:

The distribution of electrical energy requires the use of wires whose length depends on
the distance between the source and the consumer.

𝐿
According to Pouillet's law (𝑅 = 𝜌 𝑆 ,ρ being the resistivity of the metal used, L and S being

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

respectively the length and the section of the wire), the resistance of these cables is

proportional to this distance and this can result in a voltage drop at the receivers.

In other words, the arrival voltage is not that delivered by the source.

We define this difference between 'source voltage' and 'receiver voltage' as being the

"line voltage drop".

Also, generally speaking, the choice of line sections, for a given distance, must meet two

fundamental criteria: the current and the voltage drop admissible for a given installation.

If we take the fictitious example of a direct current installation, the real diagram leads to an

equivalent electrical diagram which takes into account the characteristics of the line:

The voltage received by the receiver is therefore reduced due to the resistance of the lines
and this reduction is all the more significant as the distance is long:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 − 2𝑟𝐶 𝐼

General Information:

In the case where the source is alternating, things become more complicated because
it is necessary to take into account the effect of the magnetic fields created by the
current, whether inside the cable itself or that created by one of the neighboring cables
(mutual inductance effect). This leads to an additional voltage drop which is
characterized by an equivalent inductance. This is represented by a reactance xc
which will depend on the frequency, the permeability of the metal as well as the
distance of the cable from the neighboring cables.
It should not be forgotten that there is another phenomenon that must be taken into
consideration, which is the capacitive effect of the conductors used between them,

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

and also of each wire in relation to any conductor near the lines: earth, pylon, etc.
This phenomenon is negligible in low voltage distribution networks.

1) Equivalent scheme of the transmission line :

Based on what we have said earlier, we can represent the circuit as an alternating source (source
alternative) , and a single-phase receiver (recepteur monophase) :

It consists of :

• An alternating source (source alternative) that has an effective electromotive

force EMF referred to as ‘E’

If the alternating source has an internal impedance z̅s , and if the intensity of the current

is J̅ then the delivered voltage V̅s is :

̅𝑠 = 𝐸̅ − 𝑧̅𝑠 𝐽 ̅
𝑉

Usually , the source is powerful enough that we can neglect z̅s , therefore , we take :

̅𝑠 ≈ 𝐸̅
𝑧̅𝑠 ≈ 0 and 𝑉

• Two wires of length ‘d’ and section ‘s’ each

These provide the power supply to the consumer. The section of the wires must be
chosen so as to ensure the nominal required voltage by the receiver and so as not to

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

damage these same wires. Knowing the length of the wires and their section, we can
easily determine the resistance of each wire (rc=2ρd/s, ρ being the resistivity of the metal
used). On the other hand, the inductive effect leads to an additional drop as we noted
above. The reactance xc=𝑙𝐶 𝜔 which results (given in the form of tables by manufacturers
and specialists), is equivalent to all the magnetic effects described above. With this
particularity that xc, unlike rc, strongly depends on the distance between wires !

• Single phase receiver

This consumes the power P under the voltage V and under the power factor cosφ. We

can also say that the receiver can be expressed in the form:

In general, the first 'way' of representing the receiver is the most used: an electric motor, for
example, has the indications P, V, cos φ on its plate. However, the two representations are
equivalent.

Finally, the equivalent electrical diagram is as follows:

We establish the electrical equation of the line as follows:

̅𝑠 = (𝑟𝐶 + 𝑗𝑥𝐶 )𝐽 ̅ + 𝑉
𝑉 ̅ + (𝑟𝐶 + 𝑗𝑥𝐶 )𝐽 ̅ = 2(𝑟𝐶 + 𝑗𝑥𝐶 )𝐽 ̅ + 𝑉
̅ =2𝑧̅̅̅𝐽
𝐶
̅

Therefore, the equivalent circuit is as follows:

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

2) The voltage drop :

The voltage drop is defined as:

̅̅̅𝑆 | − |𝑉
∆𝑉 = |𝑉 ̅|

3) Calculating the voltage drop :

• Exact expression

If we want to determine the voltage drop, we can apply the classic rules: voltage divider,
which gives :

𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
𝑉̅ = ̅
𝑉
(𝑅 + 2𝑟𝐶 ) + 𝑗(𝑋 + 2𝑥𝐶 ) 𝑠

The difference must be calculated using the magnitude as follows :

√𝑅2 + 𝑋 2
∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 ̅𝑠
𝑉
√(𝑅 + 2𝑟𝐶 )2 + (𝑋 + 2𝑥𝐶 )2

• Approximated expression

Based on the complex representation, we can establish an approximate formula for the
voltage drop (most common formula):

▪ For an inductive charge:

̅𝑠 = 2𝑟𝐶 𝐽 ̅ + 2𝑗𝑥𝐶 𝐽 ̅ + 𝑉̅
𝑉 ⟹

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

Note :

If we consider that the voltage drop is very small then we can assume that δ is very

small too.

Therefore, we can write the following approximation:

𝑽𝒔 ≈ 𝑽𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜹

So : Vs≈OC and V≈OA ⟹ ΔV=AC=AB+BC=2𝒓𝑪 𝑱𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 + 𝟐𝒙𝑪 𝑱|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋|

▪ For a capacitive charge :

Using the same approximation, and using the same equation (except that in this

case φ is positive):

̅𝑠 = 2𝑟𝐶 𝐽 ̅ + 2𝑗𝑥𝐶 𝐽 ̅ + 𝑉̅ ⟹
𝑉

ΔV> 𝟎 ΔV< 𝟎

Vs≈OC and V≈OA ⟹ ΔV= Vs -V=OC-OA= AC=AB-CB=2𝒓𝑪 𝑱𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝟐𝒙𝑪 𝑱|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋|

Therefore, we can write :

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes

Ecole Nationale Polytechnique Electricity N/Nouar

• For an inductive effect :

ΔV= 2𝒓𝑪 𝑱𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 + 𝟐𝒙𝑪 𝑱|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋|

• For an capacitive effect :

ΔV =2𝒓𝑪 𝑱𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋 − 𝟐𝒙𝑪 𝑱|𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋|

Important !

The voltage drop is most often expressed in %. This is expressed as ΔV/V, V being the
voltage required by the receiver (and not the actual voltage delivered by the source). The
calculation is done assuming that the operating voltage is nominal at the terminals of
the receiver.
Generally, voltage variations should be between 2.5 to 5% of the nominal value for lighting
circuits and up to 10% for power circuits. Also, the drop should not be greater than these
values.

4) Efficiency of the line (Rendement de la ligne)

The efficiency of the line should also be taken into account in order to avoid power’s extra
losses. This efficiency can be expressed as:

𝑉𝐽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
𝜂=
𝑉𝐽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 + 2𝑟𝐶 𝐽2

Powers in single-phase systems Mrs Naamane Notes