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THE POWER-FLOW PROBLEM THE POWER-FLOW PROBLEM

 Either Y bus or Zbus may be used in solving the power-  Expanding this equation and equating real and reactive
flow problem . parts, we obtain
 We confine our study to methods using admittances. and
 the typical element of Ybus matrix, Yji is:  These two constitute the polar form of the power-flow
equations.
 The voltage at a typical bus ‘i’ of the system is  They provide calculated values for the net real power Pi
and reactive power Qi entering the network at typical bus
 Net current injected in bus ‘i’ is ‘i’.
 Let Pgi -scheduled power being generated
 Let Pi and Qi denote the net real and reactive power  Pdi -scheduled power demand at bus ‘i’
entering the network at bus ‘i’. So  Pi. sch - the net scheduled power being injected into
network through bus ‘i’.
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THE POWER-FLOW PROBLEM Types of Buses

 Pi. sch = Pgi – Pdi Four potentially unknown Load buses:
 If the calculated values Pi.
calc and Qi.calc match the quantities associated with  At each non-generator bus,
 Pi. calc – calculated value of Pi.
scheduled values Pi.sch and each bus ‘i’ are Pi , Qi, called a load bus, both Pgi
 So mismatch ΔPi
Qi.sch perfectly, then we say voltage angle δi, and vol and Qgi are zero.
the mismatches ΔPi and ΔQi tage magnitude |vi|  Pdi and Qdi drawn from the
 Similarly, are zero at bus ‘i’.
 The general practice in system by the load are known
power-flow studies is to from historical record, load
 Mismatches occur when calculated identify three types of buses forecast, or measurement .
values of Pi and Qi do not coincide in the network. They are  A load bus is often called a P-
with the scheduled values. Q bus because the scheduled
 Th e functions gi' and gi",are 1. Load buses values Pi, sch = - Pdi and Qi,
convenient for writing 2. Voltage-controlled buses sch = - Qdi are known and
certain equations involving mismatches ΔPi and ΔQi can
the mismatches ΔPi and ΔQi 3. Slack bus
be defined.
.
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Types of Buses
Voltage-controlled buses:  At each generator bus we
Types of Buses
 Any bus of the system at may properly specify Pgi
which the voltage magnitude and |Vi|. Slack bus:
is kept constant is said to be  With Pdi also known , we For convenience throughout this chapter bus no ‘1’ is
voltage controlled buses. almost always designated as the slack bus.
can define mismatch ΔPi .
 For obvious reasons a
generator bus is usually called  Qgi required to support the
a voltage-controlled or PV scheduled voltage |Vi|, can The voltage angle of the slack bus serves as reference for
bus. not be known in advance, the angles of all other bus voltages.
 Here, megawatt generation can and so mismatch ΔQi is
be controlled by adjusting the not defined. The usual practice is to set δ1 = 0°.
prime mover, and the voltage
magnitude can be controlled
by adjusting the generator Voltage magnitude |V1| is specified.
excitation .
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Summary of power-flow problem THE GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD

 Digital solutions of the power- flow problems follow an
iterative process by assigning estimated values to an
unknown bus.
 Let, We derive equations for a four- bus system and write
the general equations later . With the slack bus designated
as number ‘1’ , computations start with bus ‘2’.

 Solving for V2 gives

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THE GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD ACCELERATION FACTOR

 Similarly  Experience with the Gauss- Seidel method of solution of power-
flow problems has shown that the number of iterations required
 The solution proceeds by iteration based on the scheduled real may be reduced considerably if the correction in voltage at each
and reactive power at buses’2’, ‘3’, ‘4’, the scheduled slack bus bus is multiplied by some constant that increases the amount of
voltage V1= |V1| δ1, initial voltage estimates 𝑉2( ) , 𝑉3( ) , correction to bring the voltage closer to the value it is approaching.
𝑉4( )  The multiplier that accomplishes this improved convergence is
called an acceleration factor.
 For example, at bus ‘2’ in the first iteration we have the accelerated
value 𝑉2. 𝑎𝑐𝑐 ( ) defi ned by the straight line formula.
 For a system o f N buses the general equation for the calculated
voltage at any bus ‘i’
 More generally, for bus ‘i’ during iteration ‘k’ the accelerated value
is given by
 The superscript ( k ) denotes the number of the iteration i n
which the voltage is currently being calculated.
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

GAUSS-SEIDEL METHOD  Taylor's series expansion for a function of two or more
Advantages: variables is the basis for the Newton Raphson method.
 It can easily programmed.  Let us consider the equation of two functions h1 and h2 of two
 Solution technique is simple. variables x 1 and x2 equal to a constant b1 and b2 expressed
 Requires smaller computer memory. as:
 Takes less computational time per iteration.
Disadvantages:  For a specified value of u, let us estimate,the solution to be
 Requires large number of iteration as rate of convergence is 𝒙𝟏 𝟎 and 𝒙𝟐 𝟎 .The sub-script indicates the initial estimates
slow. ,not the actual solution 𝒙𝟏∗ and 𝒙𝟐∗ .Let the corrections
 The number of iteration increases directly with the number 𝜟𝒙𝟏 𝟎 and 𝜟 𝒙𝟐 𝟎 are to be added with 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 to
of buses in system. yield the correct solutions. So,
 This method is sensitive to choice of reference bus.

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THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD THE NEWTON-RAPHSON

 Our problem now is to solve for 𝜟𝒙𝟏 𝟎 and 𝜟 𝒙𝟐 𝟎 ,
which we do by expanding the previous equations by METHOD
Tailor’s series
 So we can write

 If we neglect the partial derivatives of order greater than 1 , we

then have
 By solving the mismatch equations, either by
triangular factorization of the jacobian or by finding
its inverse, we can determine Δ𝑥1 and Δ 𝑥2
 For the next iteration we can set:
 where the square matrix of partial derivatives is called the  𝑥1 = 𝑥1 + Δ𝑥1 and 𝑥2 =𝑥2 + Δ𝑥2
jacobian J or in this case 𝐽
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THE NEWTON-RAPHSON THE NEWTON-RAPHSON

POWER-FLOW SOLUTION POWER-FLOW SOLUTION
 We have  Similarly, For reactive power Qi we have:

 Each non-slack bus of the system has two equations like those
for ΔPi and ΔQi. Collecting all the mismatch equations into
vector-matrix form yields:
 These equations can be readily differentiated with respect to
voltage angle and magnitude.
 We set, and
 For real power Pi we have:

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THE NEWTON-RAPHSON THE NEWTON-RAPHSON

POWER-FLOW SOLUTION POWER-FLOW SOLUTION
 In more general, the update terms
 The iterative method for the solution of this matrix
equation:
 Estimate values of Δδi and |Vi| for the state variables,
 Use the estimates to calculate : For More Modification:
 Pi.calc( ) and Qi.calc( )  Here,
 Then calculate ΔPi( ), ΔQi( ) and elements of jacobian. and
 Solve matrix equation for the initial corrections Δδi and
Δ|Vi| /|Vi|( )  By comparing this expression and that for Qi, we obtain,
 Add the solved corrections to the initial estimates to obtain

 Use the new values Δδi and |Vi| as starting values for  Similarly,
iteration 2 and continue.
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THE NEWTON-RAPHSON THE NEWTON-RAPHSON

POWER-FLOW SOLUTION POWER-FLOW SOLUTION
 Now Comparing with Pi we get  Let Defining,
 Similarly  Off-diagonal elements,
 Diagonal elements
 Again

 So,  we use the definitions to rewrite the matrix equation:

 Similarly,

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

THE DECOUPLED POWER-FLOW
NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD
Advantages:
METHOD
The principle underlying the decoupled approach is based
 The convergence is very fast. on two observations,
 The number of iteration is independent of size of system.  Change in the voltage angle δi at a bus primarily affects the
 The convergence is not sensitive to choice of slack bus. flow of real power P in the transmission lines and leaves the
 Fewer number of iteration is required. So computation time flow of reactive power Q relatively unchanged.
is saved.  Change in the voltage magnitude |V| at a bus primarily
Disadvantages: affects the flow of reactive power Q in the transmission
 Solution technique is difficult. lines and leaves the flow of real power P relatively
unchanged.
 Takes longer time as Jacobian are to be computed for each
time.
 Requires large computer memory.

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Chapter ends

thank You

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