ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

Module 2
 DC Network Theorems
• Ohm’s Law:
“The ratio of potential difference (V) between any two points on a conductor to the
current (I) flowing between them, is constant, provided the temperature of the
conductor does not change.”

where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.
• Relations derived from Ohm’s Law:
• Power, W = VI = V2/R = I2R (Watt)
• Resistance, R = V/I = V2/W = W/I2 (Ohm)
• Current, I = V/R = W/V = 𝑊 Τ𝑅 (Ampere)
• Voltage, V = IR = W/V = 𝑊𝑅 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡)
Problem
 Problem
• If a resistor is to dissipate energy at the rate of 250W, find its
resistance for a terminal voltage of 100 V.
Solution : W= 250 W
V = 100 V
R = V2/W = 1002/250 = 40 Ω
Resistances in series
Voltage division rule
Resistances in parallel

Various Parallel Resistor Networks

Resistors in parallel
Current Division Rule
 Common DC Circuit Theory Terms
• Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting
path in which an electrical current flows.
• Path – a single line of connecting elements or
sources.
• Node – a node is a junction, connection or
terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit
elements are connected or joined together giving
a connection point between two or more
branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
• Branch – a branch is a single or group of
components such as resistors or a source which
are connected between two nodes.
• Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit
in which no circuit element or node is
encountered more than once.
• Mesh – a mesh is a single closed loop series
path that does not contain any other paths. There
are no loops inside a mesh.
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Kirchhoff's First Law – Kirchhoff’s Current
Law, (KCL)/ Kirchhoff’s Point Law
• Kirchhoff's Current Law or KCL, states that
the “total current or charge entering a
junction or node is exactly equal to the
charge leaving the node”
• In other words, the algebraic sum of ALL
the currents entering and leaving a node
must be equal to zero,
I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.
• This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known
as the Conservation of Charge.
 Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage
Law, (KVL)/ Mesh Law
• Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states
that “in any closed loop network, the
total voltage source around the loop is
equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops within the same loop”.
• In other words, the algebraic sum of
all voltages within the loop must be
equal to zero.
• This idea by Kirchhoff is known as
the Conservation of Energy.
Problems
Problems
 Superposition Theorem
In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator (or source of e.m.f.), the current which
flows at any point is the sum of all the currents which would flow at that point if each generator where
considered separately and all the other generators replaced for the time being by resistances equal to their
internal resistances.

• According to this theorem, if there are a

number of e.m.fs. acting simultaneously in
any linear bilateral network, then each e.m.f.
acts independently of the others i.e. as if the
other e.m.fs. did not exist.
• The value of current in any conductor is the
algebraic sum of the currents due to each
e.m.f. Similarly, voltage across any conductor
is the algebraic sum of the voltages which
each e.m.f would have produced while acting
singly.
• In other words, current in or voltage across,
any conductor of the network is obtained by
superimposing the currents and voltages due
to each e.m.f. in the network
Superposition Theorem - Problems
 Thevenin’s Law
The current flowing through a load resistance RL connected across any two terminals A and B of a linear, active
bilateral network is given by Voc || (Ri + RL) where Voc is the open-circuit voltage (i.e. voltage across the two
terminals when RL is removed) and Ri is the internal resistance of the network as viewed back into the open-
circuited network from terminals A and B with all voltage sources replaced by their internal resistance (if any) and
current sources by infinite resistance.

• It provides a mathematical technique

for replacing a given network, as
viewed from two output terminals, by
a single voltage source with a series
resistance.
 Thevenin’s Law - Proof
Suppose, it is required to find current flowing through load resistance RL
• Remove RL from the circuit terminals A and B. Obviously, the
terminals have become open-circuited.
• Calculate the open-circuit voltage Voc which appears across
terminals A and B when they are open i.e. when RL is removed. As
seen, Voc = drop across R2 = IR2 where I is the circuit current when A
and B are open.

[r is the internal resistance of battery]. It is also called ‘Thevenin

voltage’ Vth.
• Now, the battery to be removed from the circuit, leaving its internal
resistance r behind and redraw the circuit. When viewed inwards
from terminals A and B, the circuit consists of two parallel paths : one
containing R2 and the other containing (R1 + r). The equivalent
resistance of the network, as viewed from these terminals is given as

• This resistance is also called, Thevenin resistance Rth (though, it is

also sometimes written as Ri or R0). Consequently, as viewed from
terminals A and B, the whole network (excluding RL) can be reduced
to a single source (called Thevenin’s source) whose e.m.f. equals Voc
(or Vth) and whose internal resistance equals Rth (or Ri)
• 4. RL is now connected back across terminals A and B from where it
was temporarily removed earlier. Current flowing through RL is given
by
Thevenin’s Law - Problem
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
A resistive load will abstract maximum power from a network when the load resistance is equal to the resistance of
the network as viewed from the output terminals, with all energy sources removed leaving behind their internal
resistances.

• A load resistance of RL is connected across the terminals A and B of a

network which consists of a generator of e.m.f. E and internal resistance Rg
and a series resistance R which, in fact, represents the lumped resistance of
the connecting wires.
• Let Ri = Rg + R = internal resistance of the network as viewed from A and B.
• According to this theorem, RL will abstract maximum power from the
network when RL = Ri.
• Maximum power transferred is given by,
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem - Proof
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem - Problem