1 INTRODUCTION:

The Bernoulli’s Theorem Apparatus consists of a classical Venturi made of clear

acrylic. A series of wall tapping allow measurement of the static pressure
distribution along the converging duct, while a total head tube is provided to
traverse along the centre line of the test section. These tapping are connected to
a manometer bank incorporating a manifold with air bleed valve. Pressurization
of the manometers is facilitated by a hand pump.

This unit has been designed to be used with a Hydraulics Bench for students to
study the characteristics of flow through both converging and diverging sections.
During the experiment, water is fed through a hose connector and students may
control the flow rate of the water by adjusting a flow regulator valve at the outlet
of the test section.

The venturi can be demonstrated as a means of flow measurement and the

discharge coefficient can be determined. This test section can be used to
demonstrate those circumstances to which Bernoulli’s Theorem may be applied
as well as in other circumstances where the theorem is not sufficient to describe
the fluid behavior.

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2 GENERAL DESCRIPTION:

The unit is mounted on a base board which is to be placed on top of the

Hydraulic Bench. This base board has four adjustable feet to level the apparatus.

The main test section is an accurately machined acrylic venturi of varying circular
cross section. It is provided with a number of side hole pressure tappings, which
are connected to the manometer tubes on the rig. These tappings allow the
measurement of static pressure head simultaneously at each of 6 sections. The
tapping positions and the test section diameters are shown in Appendix A. The
test section incorporates two unions, one at either end, to facilitate reversal for
convergent or divergent testing as illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2.

Figure 1: Front View of Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit

Figure 2: Top View of Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Unit

A hypodermic tube, the total pressure head probe, is provided which may be
positioned to read the total pressure head at any section of the duct. This total
pressure head probe may be moved after slacking the gland nut; this nut should
be re-tightened by hand after adjustment. An additional tapping is provided to
facilitate setting up. All eight pressure tapings are connected to a bank of

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pressurized manometer tubes. Pressurization of the manometers is facilitated by
connecting any hand pump to the inlet valve on the manometer manifold.

The unit is connected to the hydraulic bench using flexible hoses. The hoses and
the connections are equipped with rapid action couplings. The flexible hose
attached to the outlet pipe which should be directed to the volumetric measuring
tank on the hydraulics bench. A flow control valve is incorporated downstream of
the test section. Flow rate and pressure in the apparatus may be varied
independently by adjustment of the flow control valve and the bench supply
control valve.

Unit Assembly:

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1

3 10

Figure 3: Parts Identification Diagram

1. Manometer Tubes 6. Base Board

2. Venturi meter 7. Rota Meter
3. Water Inlet 8. Flow control valve
4. Air Bleed Screw 9. Orifice Tube
5. Water Discharge 10. Hypodermic Probe

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3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:

Please familiarize with the unit before operating the unit. The unit consists of the
followings:

a) Venturi
The venturi meter is made of transparent acrylic with the following
specifications:
Throat diameter : 16 mm
Upstream Diameter : 26 mm

b) Orifice
The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric
square-edged circular hole in a thin plate
Orifice upstream diameter (G) : 26 mm
Orifice diameter (H) : 20 mm

c) Manometer
There are eight manometer tubes; each length 320 mm, for static pressure
and total head measuring along the venturi meter.
The manometer tubes are connected to an air bleed screw for air release as
well as tubes pressurization.

d) Baseboard
The baseboard is epoxy coated and designed with 4 height adjustable stands
to level the venturi meter.

e) Discharge valve
One discharge valve is installed at the venturi discharge section for flow rate
control.

f) Connections
Hose Connections are installed at both inlet and outlet.

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4 SUMMARY OF THEORY:

Derivation using streamline coordinates:

Euler’s equation for steady flow along a streamline is

(4.1)

If a fluid particle moves a distance, ds, along a streamline,

(4.2)

(4.3)

(4.4)

Thus, after multiplying Equation 4.1 by ds,

(4.5)

Integration of this equation gives:

(4.6)

The relation between pressure and density must be applied in this equation. For
the special case of incompressible flow, ρ = constant, and Equation 4.6 becomes
the Bernoulli’s Equation.

(4.7)

Restrictions:
1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible flow
3. Frictionless flow
4. Flow along a streamline

Bernoulli’s Law:

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Bernoulli's law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying
cross section, then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is
higher, and the pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid
stagnate. Many people find this situation paradoxical when they first encounter it
(higher velocity, lower pressure). This is expressed with the following equation:

(4.8)

Where,

p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section

ρ = Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
h* = Total (stagnation) head

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure
head (h), velocity head (hv ), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of
these terms is known as the total head (h*). According to the Bernoulli’s theorem
of fluid flow through a pipe, the total head h * at any cross section is constant. In a
real flow due to friction and other imperfections, as well as measurement
uncertainties, the results will deviate from the theoretical ones.
In our experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we are
considering lie on the same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the
datum, z = 0, and thus, all the ‘z’ values are zeros so that the above equation
reduces to:

(4.9)

This represents the total head at a cross section.

For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h*i,
where i represents the cross sections at different tapping points.

Static, Stagnation, and Dynamic Pressures:

The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the Bernoulli’s equation,

Equation 4.7, is the thermodynamic pressure; it is commonly called the static
pressure. The static pressure is that pressure which would be measured by an
instrument moving with the flow. However, such a measurement is rather difficult
to make in a practical situation.

As we know, there was no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This

fact makes it possible to measure the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a
wall pressure tapping, placed in a region where the flow streamlines are straight,
as shown in Figure 4 (a). The pressure tap is a small hole, drilled carefully in the

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wall, with its axis perpendicular to the surface. If the hole is perpendicular to the
duct wall and free from burrs, accurate measurements of static pressure can be
made by connecting the tap to a suitable pressure measuring instrument.

(a) Wall Pressure Tapping

(b) Wall Pressure Tapping

Figure 4: Measurement of Static Pressure

In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are curved, accurate static
pressure measurements can be made by careful use of a static pressure probe,
shown in Figure 4 (b). Such probes must be designed so that the measuring
holes are place correctly with respect to the probe tip and stem to avoid
erroneous results. In use, the measuring section must be aligned with the local
flow direction.

Static pressure probes or any variety of forms are available commercially in sizes
as small as 1.5 mm (1/16 in.) in diameter. The stagnation pressure is obtained
when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero speed by a frictionless process. In
incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can be used to relate changes in
speed and pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglecting elevation
differences, Equation 4.7 becomes

(4.10)

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If the static pressure is p at a point in the flow where the speed is v, then the
stagnation pressure, Po, where the stagnation speed, Vo, is zero, may be
computed from
0
(4.11)

Therefore,

(4.12)

Equation 4.12 is a mathematical statement of stagnation pressure, valid for

incompressible flow. The term ½ ρV² generally is the dynamic pressure. Solving
the dynamic pressure gives:

(4.13)

Or

(4.14)

Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a
point, Equation 4.14 would give the local flow speed.

Figure 5: Measurement of Stagnation Pressure

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 (a) Total Head Tube Used with Wall Static Tap

(a) Pitot-Static Tube

Figure 6: Simultaneous Measurement of Stagnation and Static Pressures

Stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a probe with a hole that
faces directly upstream as shown in Figure 5. Such a probe is called a stagnation
pressure probe (hypodermic probe) or Pitot (pronounced pea-toe) tube. Again,
the measuring section must be aligned with the local flow direction.

We have seen that static pressure at a point can be measured with a static
pressure tap or probe (Figure 4). If we know the stagnation pressure at the same
point, then the flow speed could be computed from Equation 4.14. Two possible
experimental setups are shown in Figure 6.

In Figure 6(a), the static pressure corresponding to point A is read from the wall
static pressure tap. The stagnation pressure is measured directly at A by the total
head tube, as shown. (The stem of the total head tube is placed downstream
from the measurement location to minimize disturbance of the local flow)

Two probes often are combined, as in the Pitot-static tube shown in Figure 6(b).
The inner tube is used to measure the stagnation pressure at point B, while the
static pressure at C is sensed using the tapping on the wall. In flow fields where
the static pressure variation in the streamwise direction is small, the Pitot-static
tube may be used to infer the speed at point B in the flow by assuming pB =pC
and using Equation 4.14. (Note that when pB ≠ pC, this procedure will give
erroneous results)

Remember that the Bernoulli equation applies only for incompressible flow (Mach
number, M ≤ 0.3).

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Note:
(4.15)

Where,
u = fluid velocity
c = sonic velocity

Pressure Varies along Pipe:

A number of factors can cause for pressure to vary along the pipe such as:

1. Friction from the pipe’s inner surface,

2. The diameter of the pipe; if it is small the pressure is lower
because the velocity is increased (Bernoulli’s Theory),
3. Density of the fluid in the pipe,
4. The height of the pipe at which the pipe stands or the height at
which the flow through i.e. gravity,
5. Turbulence of the fluid

Rotameter:

The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating
element. A rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through
which fluid flows upward. Within the tube is placed a freely suspended “float” of
pump-bob shape. When there is no flow, the float rests on a stop at the bottom
end. As flow commences, the float rises upward and buoyancy forces on it are
balanced by its weight. The float rises only a short distance if the rate of flow is
small, and vice versa. The points of equilibrium can be noted as a function of flow
rate. With a well-calibrated marked glass tube, the level of the float becomes a
direct measure of the flow rate.

The Rotameter

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Venturi Meter:
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The
venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown
in the figure below. The function of the converging portion is to increase the
velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A pressure difference between
inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is correlated with
the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the
stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.

Figure 4: The Venturi Tube

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, in Equation (4.5) becomes

(4.9)

Ideally,

(4.10)

However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less
than that given by Equation 4.10 because of frictional effects and consequent
head loss between inlet and throat. Therefore,

(4.11)

In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an

experimentally determined discharge coefficient, Cd that is termed as the
coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 in this apparatus, the discharge coefficient
is determined as follow:

(4.12)

Discharge coefficient, Cd usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99.

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Orifice Meter:

The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a

concentric square-edged circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped
between the flanges of the pipe as shown in the figure below.

Orifice Meter

Pressure connections for attaching separate pressure gauges are made at

holes in the pipe walls on both side of the orifice plate. The downstream
pressure tap is placed at the minimum pressure position, which is
assumed to be at the vena contracta. The centre of the inlet pressure tap
is located between one-half and two pipe diameters from the upstream
side of the orifice plate; usually a distance of one pipe diameter is
employed. Equation (4) for the venturi meter can also be applied to the
orifice meter where

(6)

The coefficient of discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be

different from that for the case of a venturi meter.

(7)

Where,

Cd = Coefficient of discharge (0.7)

D7 = Orifice diameter = 20 mm
D8 = Orifice upstream diameter = 26 mm
At = Orifice area = 3.14 x 10-4 m2
A = Orifice upstream area = 5.306 x 10-4 m2
(h6 – h7) = Pressure difference across orifice (m)

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5 GENERAL OPERATING PROCEDURES:

General startup procedures:

The Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Apparatus supplied ready for use and
only requires connection to the Hydraulic Bench as follows:

1. Ensure that the clear acrylic test section is

installed with the converging section upstream. Also check that the unions are
tighten (hand tight only). If necessary to dismantle the test section then the
total pressure probe must be withdrawn fully (but not pulled out of its guide in
the downstream coupling) before releasing the couplings.
2. Locate the apparatus on the flat top of the bench.
3. Attach a spirit level to baseboard and level the unit
on top of the bench by adjusting the feet.
4. Fill water into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic
bench until approximately 90% full.
5. Connect the flexible inlet tube using the quick
release coupling in the bed of the channel.
6. Connect a flexible hose to the outlet and make
sure that it is directed into the channel.
7. Partially open the outlet flow control valve at the
Bernoulli’s Theorem Demonstration Apparatus.
8. Fully close the bench flow control valve, V 1 then
switch on the pump.
9. Gradually open V1 and allow the piping to fill with
water until all air has been expelled from the system.
10. Also check for “Trapped Bubbles” in the glass tube
or plastic transfer tube. You would need to remove them from the system for
better accuracy.

Note:
To remove air bubbles, you will have to bleed the air out as follow:
i. Get a pen or screw driver to press the air bleed valve at the top right
side of manometer board.
ii. Press air bleed valve lightly to allow fluid and trapped air to escape out.
(Take care or you will wet yourself or the premise).
Allow sufficient time for bleeding until all bubbles escape.

11. At this point, you will see water flowing into the
venturi and discharge into the collection tank of hydraulic bench.
12. Proceed to increase the water flow rate. When the
flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the
discharge valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
13. You will see that water level in the manometer
tubes will begin to display different level of water heights. If the water level in
the manometer board is too low where it is out of visible point, open V 1 to
increase the static pressure. If the water level is too high, open the outlet
control valve to lower the static pressure.

Note: The water level can be adjusted facilitate by the air bleed valve.

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14. Adjust V1 and outlet control valve to obtain a flow
through the test section and observe that the static pressure profile along the
converging and diverging sections is indicated on its respective manometers.
The total head pressure along the venture tube can be measured by
traversing the hypodermic tube.

Note: The manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent to the outlet
flow control valve is used as a datum when setting up equivalent conditions
for flow through test section.

15. The actual flow of water can be measured using

the volumetric tank with a stop watch.

General shutdown procedures:

1. Switch off the water supply pump.

2. Close water supply valve and venturi discharge valve.
3. Turn off the water supply pump.
4. Drain off water from the unit when not in use.

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6 EXPERIMENTS:

Experiment 1:

Objective:

To determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter and orifice meter

Procedures:

1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures.

2. Withdraw the hypodermic tube from the test section.
3. Adjust the discharge valve to the maximum measurable flow rate of the
venturi. This is achieved when tube 1 and 3 for venturi and 7 and 8 for orifice
give the maximum observable water head difference.

Note: Refer to the venturi and orifice specification for the designed flow rate.

4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric
method and record the manometers reading.
5. Repeat step 4 with at least three decreasing flow rates by regulating the
venturi discharge valve.
6. Obtain the actual flow rate, Qa from the volumetric flow measurement method.
7. Calculate the ideal flow rate, Qi from the head difference between h1 and h3
using Equation 4.18.
8. Plot Qa Vs Qi and finally obtain the discharge coefficient, C d which is the
slope.

Observations:

Flowrate calculated
Manometer reading (mm) Rotameter Vol Time Flowrate, using the Bernoulli’s
(l/min) (l) (min) Q (l/min) Equation (l/min)
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 Venturi Orifice

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Experiment 2

Objective:

To measure flow rate with venturi meter

Procedures:

1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures.

2. Withdraw the hypodermic tube from the test section.
3. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric
method and record the manometers reading.
5. Repeat step 4 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.
6. Calculate the venturi meter flow rate of each data by applying the discharge
coefficient obtained.
7. Compare the volumetric flow rate with venturi meter flow rate.

Observations:

Qav h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7
(LPM) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)

Qav(calculated) h1 – h3 Actual Flow Rate

Qi (LPM) Error (%)
(LPM) (m) (LPM)

Experiment 3:

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Objective:

To demonstrate Bernoulli’s Theorem

Procedures:

1. Perform the General Start-up Procedures.

2. Check that all manometer tubings are properly connected to the
corresponding pressure taps and are air-bubble free.
3. Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
4. After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric
method.
5. Gently slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to
manometer #H, so that its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube
at #A. Wait for some time and note down the readings from manometer #H
and #A. The reading shown by manometer #H is the sum of the static head
and velocity heads, i.e. the total (or stagnation) head (h*), because the
hypodermic tube is held against the flow of fluid forcing it to a stop (zero
velocity). The reading in manometer #A measures just the pressure head (hi)
because it is connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which does not
obstruct the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure.
6. Repeat step 5 for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E and #F).
7. Repeat step 3 to 6 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the
venturi discharge valve.
8. Calculate the velocity, ViB using the Bernoulli’s equation where;

9. Calculate the velocity, ViC using the continuity equation where

ViC = Qav / Ai
10. Determined the difference between two calculated velocities.

Observations:
Cross Using Continuity
Using Bernoulli equation Difference
Section equation
ViB = Ai = ViC =
h* = hH hi = hA ViB-ViC
i √[2*g*(h* - hi )] πDi2 /4 Qav/Ai
(mm) (mm) (m/s)
(m/s) (m2) (m/s)
A
B
C
D
E
F

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7 MAINTENANCE AND SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. It is important to drain all water from the apparatus when not in use. The
apparatus should be stored properly to prevent damage.
2. Any manometer tube, which does not fill with water or slow fill, indicates that
tapping or connection of the manometer is blocked. To remove the obstacle,
disconnect the flexible connection tube and blow through.
3. The apparatus should not be exposed to any shock and stresses.
4. Always wear protective clothing, shoes, helmet and goggles throughout the
laboratory session.
5. Always run the experiment after fully understand the unit and procedures.

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