REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. List the precautions and recommendations regarding tire se- 3. Describe how to check for lateral and radial runout of the
lection and maintenance. wheels and tires.
2. Determine the proper wheel mounting torque for your vehicle 4. Describe the difference between static and dynamic balance.
from the guidelines provided.

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. A tire is worn excessively on both edges. The most likely cause c. A tire out of balance dynamically can cause a shimmy-type
of this type of tire wear is ______________. vibration.
a. Overinflation c. Excessive radial runout d. A tire out of balance statically can cause a tramp-type
b. Underinflation d. Excessive lateral runout vibration.
2. When seating a bead of a tire, never exceed ______________ 7. The recommended type of wheel weight to use on aluminum
PSI. (alloy) wheels is ______________.
a. 30 c. 50 a. Lead with plated spring steel clips
b. 40 d. 60 b. Coated (painted) or stick-on lead weights
c. Lead weights with longer-than-normal clips
3. For best tire life, most vehicle and tire manufacturers recom-
d. Aluminum weights
mend tire rotation every ______________.
a. 3,000 miles c. 9,000 miles 8. Most vehicle and tire manufacturers recommend that no more
b. 6,000 miles d. 12,000 miles than ______________ ounces of balance weight be added to a
wheel/tire assembly.
4. What lubricant should be used when mounting a tire?
a. 2.5 c. 4.5
a. Silicone spray c. Water-based soap
b. 3.5 d. 5.5
b. Grease d. SAE 10W-30 engine oil
9. A vehicle vibrates at highway speed. Technician A says that
5. Using the modified X-method of tire rotation on a front-
water in the tire(s) could be the cause. Technician B says that
wheel-drive vehicle, where should the left front wheel be
an out-of-round tire could be the cause. Which technician is
placed?______________
correct?
a. Right front c. Left rear
a. Technician A only c. Both Technicians A and B
b. Right rear d. Kept at the left front
b. Technician B only d. Neither Technician A nor B
6. Which statement is false?
10. Proper tire inflation pressure information is found __________.
a. Excessive radial runout can cause a tramp-type vibration.
a. On the driver’s door or post c. On the sidewall of the tire
b. Excessive lateral runout can cause a tramp-type vibration.
b. In the owner’s manual d. Both a and b

chapter SUSPENSION SYSTEM

PRINCIPLES
112 AND COMPONENTS
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 112, the reader will be able to: • Prepare for ASE Suspension and Steering (A4) certification
test content area “B” (Suspension System Diagnosis and Repair). • List various types of suspensions and their component parts.
• Explain how coil, leaf, and torsion bar springs work. • Describe how suspension components function to allow wheel movement up
and down and provide for turning. • Describe how shock absorbers control spring forces.

KEY TERMS: Air spring 1306 • Anti-dive 1299 • Anti-squat 1299 • Ball joints 1300 • Bulkhead 1290 • Bump stop 1308
• Center bolt 1295 • Coil springs 1291 • Composite leaf spring 1296 • Control arms 1299 • Cradle 1289 • Full frame 1289
• GVW 1290 • Hooke’s Law 1291 • Independent suspension 1290 • Insulators 1294 • Kingpin 1299 • Ladder frame 1289
• Lateral links 1298 • Leaf springs 1295 • Load-carrying ball joint 1300 • Mono leaf 1296 • Non-load-carrying ball joint 1300
• Perimeter frame 1289 • Platforms 1290 • Rebound clips 1296 • Shackles 1296 • Shock absorbers 1302 • Space frame 1290
• Spring pocket 1294 • Spring rate 1291 • Springs 1291 • Sprung weight 1290 • Stabilizer bars 1301 • Steering knuckles 1299
• Stress riser 1295 • Strut rod 1301 • Struts 1306 • Stub-type frame 1289 • Torsion bar 1297 • Unit-body 1290 • Unsprung
weight 1290 • Wheel rate 1294

1288 CHAPTER 1 12
 SIDE MEMBER LADDER FRAME
CROSSMEMBERS
TOP VIEW

CROSSMEMBER

SIDE MEMBER

CROSSMEMBERS

SIDE MEMBER
FIGURE 112–1 A typical truck frame is an excellent example of
BODY BOLTS TO FRAME
a ladder-type frame. The two side members are connected by a
crossmember. BODY
MOUNT

RUBBER
CUSHION

INTRODUCTION
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Street-driven cars and trucks use
a suspension system to keep the tires on the road and to provide
acceptable riding comfort. A vehicle with a solid suspension, or no
FIGURE 112–2 Rubber cushions used in body or frame construc-
suspension, would bounce off the ground when the tires hit a bump.
tion isolate noise and vibration from traveling to the passenger
If the tires are off the ground, even for a fraction of a second, loss of
compartment.
control is possible. The purpose of the suspension is to provide the
vehicle with the following:
1. A smooth ride
2. Accurate steering
3. Responsive handling
4. Support for the weight of the vehicle
5. Maintenance of acceptable tire wear

FRAME CONSTRUCTION
TERMINOLOGY Frame construction usually consists of channel-
shaped steel beams welded and/or fastened together. The frame of
a vehicle supports all the “running gear” of the vehicle, including the
engine, transmission, rear axle assembly (if rear-wheel drive), and all
suspension components.
This frame construction, referred to as full frame, is so com- (a)
plete that most vehicles can usually be driven without the body.
Most trucks and larger rear-wheel-drive cars use a full frame.

LADDER FRAME A ladder frame is a common name for a type

of perimeter frame where the transverse (lateral) connecting mem-
bers are straight across.  SEE FIGURES 112–1 AND 112–2. When
viewed with the body removed, the frame resembles a ladder. Most
pickup trucks are constructed with a ladder-type frame.

PERIMETER FRAME A perimeter frame consists of welded

or riveted frame members around the entire perimeter of the body.
This means that the frame members provide support underneath the (b)
sides as well as for the suspension and suspension components. FIGURE 112–3 (a) Separate body and frame construction;
(b) unitized construction: the small frame members are for
STUB-TYPE FRAMES A stub-type frame is a partial frame support of the engine and suspension components. Many
often used on unit-body vehicles to support the power train and vehicles attach the suspension components directly to the
suspension components. It is also called a cradle on many front- reinforced sections of the body and do not require the rear
wheel-drive vehicles.  SEE FIGURE 112–3. frame section.

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C O M P ON EN T S 1289

 ?
UNIT-BODY CONSTRUCTION
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Does GVW Mean?

GVW, gross vehicle weight, is the weight of the vehicle
plus the weight of all passengers the vehicle is designed
to carry ( 150 lb [68 kg] each), plus the maximum allow-
able payload or luggage load. Curb weight is the weight
of a vehicle when wet, meaning with a full tank of fuel and
all fluids filled, but without passengers or cargo (luggage).
Model weight is the weight of a vehicle wet and with
FIGURE 112–4 Welded metal sections create a platform passengers.
that combines the body with the frame using unit-body The GVW is found stamped on a plate fastened to
construction. the doorjamb of most vehicles. A high GVW rating does
not mean that the vehicle itself weighs a lot more than
other vehicles. For example, a light truck with a GVW
UNIT-BODY CONSTRUCTION Unit-body construction (some-
of 6,000 lbs (2,700 kg) will not ride like an old 6,000-lb
times called unibody) is a design that combines the body with the
luxury car. In fact, a high GVW rating usually requires
structure of the frame. The body supports the engine and drive line
stiff springs to support the payload; these stiff springs
components, as well as the suspension and steering components.
result in a harsh ride. Often technicians are asked to cor-
The body is composed of many individual stamped-steel panels
rect a harsh-riding truck that has a high GVW rating. The
welded together.
technician can only check that everything in the suspen-
The strength of this type of construction lies in the shape of
sion is satisfactory and then try to convince the owner
the assembly. The typical vehicle uses 300 separate and different
that a harsher-than-normal ride is the result of a higher
stamped steel panels that are spot-welded to form a vehicle’s body.
GVW rating.
 SEE FIGURE 112–4.
NOTE: A typical vehicle contains about 10,0000 individual
parts.

SPACE FRAME CONSTRUCTION Space frame construction UNSPRUNG WEIGHT

consists of formed sheet steel used to construct a framework for the
entire vehicle. The vehicle is drivable without the body, which uses
plastic or steel panels to cover the steel framework. A suspension system has to be designed to allow the wheels to
move up and down quickly over bumps and dips without affect-
ing the entire weight of the car or truck. In fact, the lighter the total
weight of the components that move up and down, the better the
PLATFORMS handling and ride. This weight is called unsprung weight. The idea
of very light weight resulted in magnesium wheels for racing cars,
which are very light yet strong. Aftermarket wheels that resemble
TERMINOLOGY The platform of any vehicle is its basic size and
racing car wheels are often referred to as mag wheels. For best
shape. Various vehicles of different makes can share the same plat-
handling and ride, the unsprung weight should be kept as low as
form, and therefore many of the same drive train (engine, transmission,
possible.
and final drive components) and suspension and steering components.
Sprung weight is the term used to identify the weight of the
A platform of a unit-body vehicle includes all major sheet-metal
car or truck that does not move up and down and is supported or
components that form the load-bearing structure of the vehicle, includ-
sprung by the suspension.
ing the front suspension and engine-supporting sections. The area
separating the engine compartment from the passenger compartment
is called the bulkhead. The height and location of this bulkhead panel
to a large degree determines the shape of the rest of the vehicle.
TYPES OF SUSPENSIONS
TRACK AND WHEELBASE Other components of vehicle plat-
form design that affect handling and ride are the track and wheel-
base of the vehicle. The track of a vehicle is the distance between Early suspension systems on old horse wagons, buggies, and
the wheels, as viewed from the front or rear. A wide-track vehicle is older vehicles used a solid axle for front and rear wheels.  SEE
a vehicle with a wide wheel stance; this increases the stability of the FIGURE 112–5. If one wheel hit a bump, the other wheel was
vehicle, especially when cornering. The wheelbase of a vehicle is affected, as shown in  FIGURE 112–6.
the distance between the center of the front wheel and the center Most vehicles today use a separate control-arm-type of
of the rear wheel, as viewed from the side. A vehicle with a long suspension for each front wheel, which allows for movement of
wheelbase tends to ride smoother than a vehicle with a short one. one front wheel without affecting the other front wheel. This type
Examples of common platforms include the following: of front suspension is called independent suspension.  SEE
FIGURE 112–7.
1. Chevrolet Impala and Pontiac Grand Prix
Many rear suspensions also use independent-type suspension
2. Toyota Camry and Lexus ES 350 systems. Regardless of the design type of suspension, all suspen-
3. Buick Lucerne and Cadillac DTS sions use springs in one form or another.

1290 CHAPTER 1 12
SPRINGS A suspension spring serves two purposes. First, it the vertical force of the moving wheel during jounce, then release that
acts as a buffer between the suspension and frame to absorb verti- force during rebound as they return to their original shape and position.
cal wheel and suspension movement without passing it on to the
SPRING MATERIALS. Most springs are made of a tempered steel
frame. Second, each spring transfers part of the vehicle weight to the
alloy known as spring steel, consisting of chrome silicon or chrome-
suspension component it rests on, which transfers it to the wheels.
vanadium alloy. Tempering is a process of heating and cooling metal
The basic method by which springs absorb road shocks varies
under controlled conditions, which increases the resilience of the
according to the type of spring. Simply stated, leaf springs flatten,
metal. Resilience is the ability of the metal to return to, or spring back
coil springs and air springs compress, and torsion bars twist. What
to, its original shape after being twisted or compressed.
all springs have in common is that they somehow give way to absorb

HOOKE’S LAW
Regardless of type, all suspensions use springs that share a com-
mon characteristic described by Hooke’s Law. Robert Hooke
(1635–1703), an English physicist, discovered the force characteris-
tics of springs: The deflection (movement or deformation) of a spring
is directly proportional to the applied force.
SOLID SPINDLE
What this means is that when a coil spring (for example) is
I-BEAM
AXLE
depressed 1 in., it pushes back with a certain force (in pounds),
such as 400 pounds. If the spring is depressed another inch, the
force exerted by the spring is increased by another 400 pounds. The
spring rate or force constant for this spring is therefore “400 lb per
LEAF SPRING
inch,” usually symbolized by the letter K. Since the force constant is
the force per unit of displacement (movement), it is a measure of the
FIGURE 112–5 Solid I-beam axle with leaf springs. stiffness of the spring. The higher the spring rate (K), the stiffer the
spring.  SEE FIGURE 112–8.

SOLID AXLE
COIL SPRINGS
Coil springs are made of special round spring steel wrapped in
a helix shape. The strength and handling characteristics of a coil
FIGURE 112–6 When one wheel hits a bump or drops into a spring depend on the following:
hole, both left and right wheels are moved. Because both wheels 1. Coil diameter
are affected, the ride is often harsh and feels stiff.
2. Number of coils

UPPER CONTROL
ARM BUSHING

UPPER
BALL
PIVOT JOINT
SHAFT

COIL SPRING

LOWER CONTROL
ARM BUSHING
LOWER
BALL
JOINT SPINDLE

FIGURE 112–7 A typical independent front suspension used on a rear-wheel-drive vehicle. Each wheel can hit a bump or hole in the road
independently without affecting the opposite wheel.

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C OM P ON EN T S 1291

 vehicle body. The type of end on the coil spring also varies and
determines the style of the spring mount.

SPRING COATINGS All springs are painted or coated with

epoxy to help prevent breakage. A scratch, nick, or pit caused by
corrosion can cause a stress riser that can lead to spring failure.
The service technician should be careful not to remove any of the
protective coating. Whenever a service operation requires the spring
to be compressed, always use a tool that will not scratch or nick the
surface of the spring.

LEAF SPRINGS
Leaf springs are constructed of one or more strips of long, nar-
FIGURE 112–17 This replacement coil spring is coated to pre-
row spring steel. These metal strips, called leaves, are assembled
vent rust and corrosion and colored to help identify the spring
with plastic or synthetic rubber insulators between the leaves,
and/or spring manufacturer.
allowing for freedom of movement during spring operation.  SEE
FIGURE 112–18.
The ends of the longest spring leaf are rolled or looped to form
eyes. Rubber bushings are installed in the eyes of the spring and act
as noise and vibration insulators.  SEE FIGURE 112–19.
SPRING The leaves are held together by a center bolt, also called a
INSULATOR centering pin.  SEE FIGURE 112–20.

U-BOLTS

CENTER BOLT

STEEL LEAVES
SPRING
PERCH
FIGURE 112–18 A typical leaf spring used on the rear of a pickup FIGURE 112–20 All multileaf springs use a center bolt to not only
truck showing the plastic insulator between the leaves, which hold the leaves together but also help retain the leaf spring in the
allows the spring to move without creating wear or noise. center of the spring perch.

LEAF SPRING

MAIN LEAF
FRONT

LEAVES

U-BOLT
HANGER
FIGURE 112–19 A typical leaf spring installation. The longest leaf, called the main leaf, attaches to the frame through a shackle and a hanger.

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C O M P ON EN T S 1295

 SHACKLES

FIGURE 112–21 When a leaf spring is compressed, the spring flattens and becomes longer. The shackles allow for this lengthening.
Rubber bushings are used in the ends of the spring and shackles to help isolate road noise from traveling into the passenger compartment.

SHOCK
ABSORBER
SHACKLE

REBOUND
CLIPS

DIFFERENTIAL
ASSEMBLY

LEAF SPRING
FIGURE 112–22 Typical rear leaf-spring suspension of a rear-wheel-drive vehicle.

from separating whenever the leaf spring is rebounding from hitting a

RATE-VARYING CONTACT
bump or rise in the roadway.  SEE FIGURE 112–22.
Single leaf steel springs, called mono leaf, are used on some
vehicles. A single or mono leaf spring is usually tapered to produce
a variable spring rate. Leaf springs are used for rear suspensions
on cars and many light trucks. A variable rate can be accomplished
with a leaf spring suspension by providing contacts on the mount
that effectively shorten the spring once it is compressed to a cer-
tain point. This provides a smoother ride when the load is light
FIGURE 112–23 As the vehicle is loaded, the leaf spring contacts and still provides a stiffer spring when the load is heavy.  SEE
a section of the frame. This shortens the effective length of the FIGURE 112–23.
spring, which makes it stiffer. To provide additional load-carrying capacity, especially on
trucks and vans, auxiliary or helper leaves are commonly used. This
extra leaf becomes effective only when the vehicle is heavily loaded.
 SEE FIGURE 112–24 on page 1297.
One end of a leaf spring is mounted to a hanger with a bolt and Leaf springs are used on the front suspension of many four-
rubber bushings directly attached to the frame. The other end of the wheel-drive trucks, especially medium and heavy trucks.
leaf spring is attached to the frame with movable mounting hangers
called shackles.  SEE FIGURE 112–21. COMPOSITE LEAF SPRINGS Since the early 1980s,
The shackles are necessary because as the spring hits a fiberglass-reinforced epoxy plastic composite leaf springs have
bump, the slightly curved spring (semi-elliptical) becomes longer been used on production vehicles. They save weight: An 8-pound
and straighter, and the shackles allow for this rearward movement. spring can replace a conventional 40-pound steel leaf spring. The
Rebound clips, or spring alignment clips, help prevent the leaves secret to making a strong plastic leaf spring is the glass fibers

1296 CHAPTER 1 12
 AUXILIARY LEAF

FIXED END OF
TORSION BAR
(FRAME)
TORSION APPLIED
BY CONTROL ARM

FIGURE 112–26 A torsion bar resists twisting and is used as a

spring on some cars and many four-wheel-drive pickup trucks and
sport utility vehicles. The larger the diameter, or the shorter the
FIGURE 112–24 Many pickup trucks, vans, and sport utility torsion bar, the stiffer the bar. A torsion bar twists very little during
vehicles (SUVs) use auxiliary leaf springs that contact the other normal operation and about a 1/16 of a revolution during a major
leaves when the load is increased. suspension travel event.

FIGURE 112–25 (a) A fiberglass spring is composed of long

fibers locked together in an epoxy (resin) matrix. (b) When the
spring compresses, the bottom of the spring expands and the top
compresses. Composite leaf springs are used and mounted
transversely (side-to-side) on Chevrolet Corvettes and at the rear
on some other General Motors vehicles.

EPOXY
FIBERGLASS MATRIX
SPRING

GLASS
FIBERS
(a)

ATTACHED TO
ROAD SHOCK BODY OF VEHICLE
TOP FIBERS UNDERGO
GOES INTO SPRING
UNIFORM COMPRESSION
TAPER

BOTTOM FIBERS
UNDERGO TENSION,
EXPAND
(b)

running continuously from one end of the spring to the other, and
the use of 70% fiberglass with 30% epoxy composite. The single-
leaf composite spring helps isolate road noise and vibrations. It
TORSION BARS
is more efficient than a multileaf spring because it eliminates
the interleaf friction of the steel leaves and requires less space. A torsion bar is a spring that is a long, round, hardened steel
 SEE FIGURE 112–25. bar similar to a coil spring except that it is a straight bar.  SEE
Leaf spring rate increases when the thickness increases, and FIGURE 112–26.
decreases as the length increases.

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C OM P ON EN T S 1297

 TORSION UPPER
BARS CONTROL
ARM
LOWER
CONTROL
ARM

LOWER
CONTROL
ARM

FIGURE 112–27 Longitudinal torsion bars attach at the lower

control arm at the front and at the frame at the rear of the bar.
SPINDLE

LOWER
CONTROL ARM
TORSION BAR
FIGURE 112–29 The spindle supports the wheels and attaches
to the control arm with ball-and-socket joints called ball joints. The
TORSION SWIVEL control arm attaches to the frame of the vehicle through rubber
BAR
bushings to help isolate noise and vibration between the road and
the body. (Courtesy of Cooper Automotive Company)
ANCHOR
ARM

LOWER
CONTROL interchangeable, proper ride height can be accomplished even if
ARM the bars were installed on the side opposite from the original. But
because the bar is being “worked” in the opposite direction, it can
HEIGHT
ADJUSTMENT weaken and break. If a torsion bar breaks, the entire suspension
BOLT collapses; this can cause severe vehicle damage, as well as a seri-
ous accident.

FIGURE 112–28 One end of the torsion bar attaches to the lower
control arm and the other to an anchor arm that is adjustable.
SUSPENSION PRINCIPLES
Suspensions use various links, arms, and joints to allow the wheels
to move freely up and down; front suspensions also have to allow
One end is attached to the lower control arm of a front suspen-
the front wheels to turn. All suspensions must provide for the fol-
sion and the other end to the frame. When the wheels hit a bump,
lowing supports:
the bar twists and then untwists. General Motors pickup trucks use
torsion-bar front suspension longitudinally.  SEE FIGURE 112–27. 1. Transverse (or side-to-side) wheel support. As the wheels of
Many manufacturers of pickup trucks currently use torsion- the vehicle move up and down, the suspension must accom-
bar-type suspensions, especially on their four-wheel-drive models. modate this movement and still keep the wheel from moving
Torsion bars allow room for the front drive axle and constant velocity away from the vehicle or inward toward the center of the vehicle.
joint and still provide for strong suspension.  SEE FIGURE 112–29. The control arm pivots on the vehicle
As with all automotive springs, spring action is controlled by the frame. The wheels attach to a spindle that attaches to the ball
shock absorbers. Unlike other types of springs, torsion bars may be joint at the end of the control arm. Transverse links are also called
adjustable for correct ride height.  SEE FIGURE 112–28. lateral links.
Most torsion bars are labeled left or right, usually stamped into 2. Longitudinal (front-to-back) wheel support. As the wheels
the end of the bars. The purpose of this designation is to make of the vehicle move up and down, the suspension must
sure that the correct bar is installed on the original side of the allow for this movement and still keep the wheels from moving
vehicle. Torsion bars are manufactured without any built-in direction backward whenever a bump is hit. Note in  FIGURE 112–29
or preload. However, after being in a vehicle, the bar takes a set; how the separation of the pivot points, where the control arm
reversing the side the torsion bar is used on causes the bar to be meets the frame, provides support to prevent front-to-back
twisted in the opposite direction. Even though the bars are usually wheel movement.

1298 CHAPTER 1 12
 UPPER CONTROL ARM
PIVOT SHAFT

UPPER
CONTROL ARM

COIL SPRING

SHOCK
ABSORBER

STEERING
KNUCKLE

SPINDLE

LOWER
STRUT RODS CONTROL ARM
FIGURE 112–30 The strut rods provide longitudinal support to the suspension to prevent forward or rearward movement of the control arms.

At least two suspension links or arms are required in order to

provide for freedom of movement up or down, and to prevent any
in–out or forward–back movement. Some suspension designs use
STEERING KNUCKLES
an additional member to control forward–back movement.  SEE
FIGURE 112–30. A steering knuckle is hard to classify either as part of the suspen-
The design of the suspension and the location of the suspen- sion or as part of the wheel. A knuckle serves two purposes:
sion mounting points on the frame or body are critical to proper  To join the suspension to the wheel
vehicle handling. Two very important design factors are called anti-  Usually includes the spindle where the front wheel bearings
squat and anti-dive.
are attached
1. Anti-squat. Anti-squat refers to the reaction of the body of a  To provide pivot points between the suspension and wheel.
vehicle during acceleration. It is normal in most designs for the
vehicle to squat down at the rear while accelerating. Most drivers Knuckles are used with independent suspensions and at the
feel comfortable feeling this reaction, even on front-wheel-drive wheels that steer the vehicle.  SEE FIGURE 112–31.
vehicles. Anti-squat refers to the degree to which this normal The only knuckle that uses a kingpin is a steering knuckle on
force is neutralized. If 100% anti-squat were designed into an I-beam or twin I-beam front suspension.  SEE FIGURE 112–32.
the suspension system, the vehicle would remain level while A kingpin steering knuckle keeps the wheel rigid in relation to the
accelerating. I-beam during up-and-down wheel movement, but rotates around
the steering axis to turn the wheels left and right. The steering axis
2. Anti-dive. Anti-dive refers to the force that causes the front of
is the vertical center of the kingpin.
the vehicle to drop down while braking. Some front-nose dive
feels normal to most drivers. If 100% anti-dive were designed
into a vehicle, it would remain perfectly level while braking.
The service technician cannot, and should not, attempt to
change anti-squat or anti-dive characteristics built into the design
CONTROL ARMS
of the vehicle. However, if the customer notices more squat or dive
than normal, then the technician should carefully inspect all suspen- A control arm is a suspension link that connects a knuckle or
sion components, especially those mounting points to the frame or wheel flange to the frame. One end of a control arm attaches to
body. the knuckle or wheel flange, generally with either a ball joint or

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C O M P ON EN T S 1299

 UPPER
CONTROL
ARM CONTROL
ARM

BALL STEERING
JOINT KNUCKLE
DUST
CAP
CASTLE NUT AND
UPPER COTTER PIN
BALL
JOINT

STEERING
KNUCKLE DUST
LOWER CAP
LOWER BALL
CONTROL JOINT
ARM CONTROL BALL
ARM JOINT
FIGURE 112–31 The steering knuckle used on a short/long-arm
front suspension. FIGURE 112–33 Control arms are used to connect the steering
knuckle to the frame or body of the vehicle and provide the struc-
tural support for the suspension system.

KINGPIN
STEERING
ARM

I-BEAM

A vehicle can be equipped with coil springs, mounted either

above the upper control arm or on the lower control arm.  SEE
FIGURE 112–34.
If the coil spring is attached to the top of the upper control
arm, then the upper ball joint is carrying the weight of the vehi-
TIE ROD
cle and is called the load-carrying ball joint. The lower ball joint
ARM
is called the non-load-carrying, or follower, ball joint.  SEE
FIGURE 112–35.
If the coil spring is attached to the lower control arm, then the
STEERING lower ball joint is the load-carrying ball joint and the upper joint is the
KNUCKLE
follower ball joint.  SEE FIGURE 112–36.
If a torsion-bar-type spring is used, the lower ball joint is a load-
FIGURE 112–32 A kingpin is a steel shaft or pin that joins the
carrying joint because the torsion bar is attached to the lower control
steering knuckle to the suspension and allows the steering knuckle
arm on most vehicles that use torsion bars.
to pivot.

BALL JOINT DESIGN There are two basic designs of ball

bushing. The opposite end of the arm, which attaches to a frame joints: compression loaded and tension loaded. If the control arm
member, usually pivots on a bushing.  SEE FIGURE 112–33. The rests on the steering knuckle, the ball joint is compressed into the
end attached to the frame must pivot to allow the axle or knuckle control arm by the weight of the vehicle. If the knuckle rests on the
to travel vertically. control arm, the weight of the vehicle tends to pull the ball joint
back into the control arm by tension. The type used is determined
by the chassis design engineer, and the service technician cannot
change the type of ball joint used for a particular application.  SEE
BALL JOINTS FIGURE 112–37 on page 1303.
A specific amount of stud-turning resistance is built into each
ball joint to stabilize steering. A ball joint that does not support the
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Ball joints are actually ball-and- weight of the vehicle and acts as a suspension pivot is often called
socket joints, similar to the joints in a person’s shoulder. Ball joints a follower ball joint or a friction ball joint. The load-carrying (weight-
allow the front wheels to move up and down, as well as side to side carrying) ball joint is subjected to the greatest amount of wear and
(for steering). is the most frequently replaced.

1300 CHAPTER 1 12
 BALL
JOINTS

BALL
JOINTS

COIL SPRING OR COIL SPRING OR

TORSION BAR MOUNTED TORSION BAR MOUNTED
ON UPPER CONTROL ARM ON LOWER CONTROL ARM

BALL
JOINT

BALL
JOINT

COIL SPRING MOUNTED

MACPHERSON ON LOWER CONTROL ARM
STRUT WITH MODIFIED STRUT
FIGURE 112–34 Ball joints provide the freedom of movement necessary for steering and suspension movements.

The bushings are replaceable by removing a nut on the frame

STRUT RODS end of the strut rod.  SEE FIGURE 112–39. If a strut rod has a nut
on both sides of the bushings, then the strut rod is used to adjust
caster.
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Some vehicles are equipped with
round steel rods that are attached between the lower control arm at
one end and the frame of the vehicle with rubber bushings, called
strut rod bushings, at the other end. The purpose of these strut
rods is to provide forward/backward support to the control arms.
STABILIZER BARS
Strut rods are used on vehicles equipped with MacPherson struts
and many short/long-arm-type suspensions. The bushings are very Most cars and trucks are equipped with a stabilizer bar on the
important in maintaining proper wheel alignment while providing front suspension, which is a round, hardened steel bar (usually SAE
the necessary up-and-down movement of the control arms during 4560 or 4340 steel) attached to both lower control arms with bolts
suspension travel. Strut rods prevent lower control arm movement and rubber bushing washers called stabilizer bar bushings.  SEE
back and forth during braking.  SEE FIGURE 112–38. FIGURE 112–40 on page 1304.
A stabilizer bar is also called an anti-sway bar (sway bar) or
TERMINOLOGY Strut rods are also called tension or compres- anti-roll bar (roll bar). A stabilizer bar operates by twisting the bar
sion rods or simply TC rods. Tension rods attach in front of the if one side of the vehicle moves up or down in relation to the other
wheels to the body or frame where the rod is being pulled in tension. side, such as during cornering, hitting bumps, or driving over uneven
Compression rods attach to the body or frame behind the wheels road surfaces.  SEE FIGURE 112–41 on page 1304.
where the rod is being pushed or compressed. Some vehicle manu- The purpose of the stabilizer bar is to prevent excessive body
facturers call the strut rod a drag rod because it is attached in front roll while cornering and to add stability while driving over rough
of the wheels, and therefore acts on the lower control arm as if to road surfaces. The stabilizer bar is also used as a longitudinal (front/
drag the wheels behind their attachment points. back) support to the lower control arm on many vehicles equipped

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C OM P ON EN T S 1301

 COIL SPRING SHOCK
ABSORBER

LOAD-CARRYING
BALL JOINT

STEERING
UPPER KNUCKLE
CONTROL
ARM
STABILIZER
BAR

SPINDLE

STRUT
ROD BUSHING
STRUT ROD

LOWER
CONTROL FOLLOWER
ARM BALL-JOINT

FIGURE 112–35 The upper ball joint is load carrying in this type of suspension because the weight of the vehicle is applied through the
spring, upper control arm, and ball joint to the wheel. The lower control arm is a lateral link, and the lower ball joint is called a follower
ball joint.

FOLLOWER inspection of the stabilizer bar links is important. Links are com-
BALL JOINT monly found to be defective (cracked rubber washers or broken
spacer bolts) because of the great amount of force that is transmit-
ted through the links and the bushings. Defective links and/or bush-
ings can cause unsafe vehicle handling and noise.
SPRING

SHOCK ABSORBERS
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION Shock absorbers are used on all
conventional suspension systems to dampen and control the mo-
tion of the vehicle’s springs. Without shock absorbers (dampers),
WEIGHT OF the vehicle would continue to bounce after hitting bumps.  SEE
LOWER VEHICLE
CONTROL
FIGURE 112–44.
LOAD-CARRYING The major purpose of any shock or strut is to control ride and
ARM
BALL JOINT
handling. Standard shock absorbers do not support the weight of
a vehicle. The springs support the weight of the vehicle; the shock
FIGURE 112–36 The lower ball joint is load carrying in this type absorbers control the actions and reactions of the springs. Shock
of suspension because the weight of the vehicle is applied through absorbers are also called dampers.
the spring, lower control arm, and ball joint to the wheel. Most shock absorbers are direct acting because they are con-
nected directly between the vehicle frame or body and the axles.
 SEE FIGURE 112–45.
with MacPherson struts. The effective force of a stabilizer bar is As a wheel rolls over a bump, the wheel moves toward the
increased with the diameter of the bar. Therefore, optional suspen- body and compresses the spring(s) of the vehicle. As the spring
sions often include larger-diameter stabilizer bars and bushings. compresses, it stores energy. The spring then releases this stored
Stabilizer links connect the ends of the stabilizer bar to the energy, causing the body of the vehicle to rise (rebound).  SEE
lower control arm.  SEE FIGURES 112–42 AND 112–43. Careful FIGURE 112–46.

1302 CHAPTER 1 12
 LOAD-CARRYING After the energy in the spring is used up, the body starts down-
BALL JOINTS ward, causing the spring to compress. Without shock absorbers,
the energy released from the spring would be very rapid and violent.
The shock absorber helps dampen the rapid up-and-down move-
ment of the vehicle springs by converting energy of movement into
heat by forcing hydraulic fluid through small holes inside the shock
TENSION-LOADED absorber.
BALL JOINT
SHOCK ABSORBER OPERATION The hydraulic shock ab-
BEARING sorber operates on the principle of fluid being forced through a small
opening (orifice).  SEE FIGURES 112–47 AND 112–48. Besides
small openings, pressure relief valves are built into most shock
absorbers to control vehicle ride under all operating conditions.

COMPRESSION-LOADED BEARING
BALL JOINT

FIGURE 112–39 Strut rod bushings insulate the steel bar from
the vehicle frame or body.

FIGURE 112–37 All ball joints, whether tension or compression

loaded, have a bearing surface between the ball stud and socket.
UPPER
CONTROL ARM

UPPER CONTROL UPPER

ARM SHAFT BALL JOINT
AND BUSHINGS

KNUCKLE
LOWER CONTROL
ARM BUSHING

STABILIZER
BAR AND LINK
ASSEMBLY

STRUT
ROD AND COIL SPRING
BUSHING STRUT ROD

SHOCK
LOWER
ABSORBER
BALL JOINT
FIGURE 112–38 A strut rod is the longitudinal support to prevent front-to-back wheel movement. Struts rods are only used when there is
only one lower control arm bushing and not used where there are two lower control arm bushings.

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C O M P ON EN T S 1303

 UPPER MOUNT
ASSEMBLY

COIL SPRING

STRUT ROD
BUSHING

STRUT ROD
STRUT
SPINDLE ASSEMBLY

BALL JOINT
STABILIZER
BAR LINK

STABILIZER STABILIZER BAR

BAR BUSHING (ANTI-SWAY BAR)
FIGURE 112–40 Typical stabilizer bar installation.

BODY LEAN The use of higher-pressure radial tires and lighter vehicle
weight has created the need for more effective shock absorbers.
To meet this need, shock absorber design engineers use a pres-
surized gas that does not react chemically with the oil in the shock.
If a substance does not react with any other substances, it is called
inert. The gas most often used is nitrogen, which is about 78%
of our atmosphere. Typical gas-charged shocks are pressurized
LOAD with 130 to 150 PSI (900 to 1,030 kPa) to aid in both handling and
ride control. Some shocks use higher pressures, but the higher
the pressure, the greater the possibility of leaks and the harsher
the ride.
Some gas-charged shock absorbers use a single tube that
EFFECT
contains two pistons that separate the high-pressure gas from
the working fluid. Single-tube shocks are also called monotube or
DeCarbon after the French inventor of the principle and manufac-
FIGURE 112–41 As the body of the vehicle leans, the stabilizer turer of suspension components.  SEE FIGURE 112–49.
bar is twisted. The force exerted by the stabilizer bar counteracts
the body lean. AIR SHOCKS/STRUTS Air-inflatable shock absorbers or struts
are used in the rear of vehicles to provide proper vehicle ride height
while carrying heavy loads. Many air shock/strut units are original
The greater the pressure drop of the fluid inside the shock and the
greater the amount of fluid moved through the orifice, the greater the
amount of dampening; therefore, larger shock absorbers can usually
provide better dampening than smaller units.
? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

GAS-CHARGED SHOCKS Most shock absorbers on new vehi- What Are Remote Reservoir Shocks?
cles are gas charged. Pressurizing the oil inside the shock absorber
helps smooth the ride over rough roads. This pressure helps pre- Remote reservoir shock absorbers are units designed
vent air pockets from forming in the shock absorber oil as it passes for heavy-duty use that use a separate container for the
through the small passages in the shock. After the oil is forced working fluid.  SEE FIGURE 112–50 on page 1308.
through small passages, the pressure drops and the oil expands. As The purpose of the remote fluid reservoir is to keep
the oil expands, bubbles are created. The oil becomes foamy. This the temperature of the fluid stable, which helps the
air-filled oil does not effectively provide dampening. The result of all shock absorber provide consistent dampening under all
of this aeration (air being mixed with the oil) is lack of dampening and conditions.
a harsh ride.

1304 CHAPTER 1 12
 HEAD OF BOLT

INSERT
RUBBER BUSHINGS
(SEE INSERT) RAISED AREA

STABILIZER
BAR
STEEL SLEEVE

RAISED AREA OF BUSHING

SHOULD BE PLACED
TOWARD STABILIZER
LOWER BAR OR CONTROL ARM
CONTROL ARM
STEEL WASHERS

FIGURE 112–42 Stabilizer bar links are sold as a kit consisting of the long bolt with steel sleeve and rubber or urethane bushings.
Steel washers are used on both sides of the rubber bushings as shown.

MOVEMENT
RUBBER BUSHING
MOUNT
STABILIZER
BAR
TIME
(a)

MOVEMENT

TIME
(b)
LOWER
CONTROL ARM

FIGURE 112–43 Notice how the lower control arm pulls down
on the mounting bushing when the vehicle is hoisted off the
ground, allowing the front suspension to drop down. These
bushings are a common source of noise, especially when cold.
Lubricating the bushings with paste silicone grease often cures
the noise.

(c)
equipment. They are often combined with a built-in air compressor
and ride height sensor(s) to provide automatic ride height control.
Air-inflatable shocks are standard shock absorbers with an
air chamber and a rubber bag built into the dust cover (top) of the
shock.  SEE FIGURE 112–51 on page 1308.
Air pressure is used to inflate the bag, which raises the installed
height of the shock. As the shock increases in height, the rear of
the vehicle is raised. Typical maximum air pressure in air shocks SHOCK ABSORBER
ranges from 90 to 150 PSI (620 to 1,030 kPa). As the air pressure PRINCIPLE
increases in the air-inflatable reservoir of the shock, the stiffness
of the suspension increases. This additional stiffness is due to the
shock taking weight from the spring, and therefore the air in the air (d)
shock becomes an air spring. Now, with two springs to support the FIGURE 112–44 (a) Movement of the vehicle is supported by
vehicle, the spring rate increases and a harsher ride often results. It springs without a dampening device. (b) Spring action is dampened
is important that the load capacity of the vehicle not be exceeded or with a shock absorber. (c) The function of any shock absorber is
serious damage can occur to the vehicle’s springs, axles, bearings, to dampen the movement or action of a spring, similar to using a
and shock support mounts. liquid to control the movement of a weight on a spring (d).

SU SPE N SI O N SYST E M PRI N C I PL E S AN D C O M P ON EN T S 1305

 FRAME

BODY
(FRAME)

COIL
SPRING

REAR AXLE
LOWER
LEAF SPRING CONTROL
SUSPENSION ARM

FIGURE 112–45 Shock absorbers work best when mounted as close to the spring as possible. Shock absorbers that are mounted
straight up and down offer the most dampening.

REBOUND COMPRESSION adjust ride height according to load.  SEE FIGURE 112–53 on
page 1309.

COIL-OVER SHOCKS. A coil-over shock absorber uses the force of

an external coil spring to boost the performance of the basic shock
absorber.  SEE FIGURE 112–54 on page 1309. The spring usually
extends from the upper shock mount to a seat on the lower portion
of the cylinder. The spring rate added to the hydraulic resistance
makes the shock stiffer.

STRUTS
PURPOSE AND FUNCTION A strut is a sturdy shock absorber
that is also a structural component of the suspension. A strut is a
suspension link as well as a shock absorber. The casing of a strut
FIGURE 112–46 When a vehicle hits a bump in the road, the must be strong and rigid to function as a suspension link. The shock
suspension moves upward. This is called compression or jounce. absorber assembles inside the casing of a strut, and may be either
Rebound is when the spring (coil, torsion bar, or leaf) returns to its a removable cartridge or an integral part of the strut.
original position.
MACPHERSON STRUTS The MacPherson strut, which is
named after Earle S. MacPherson, who developed the suspen-
sion design in the late 1940s and patented it in 1953, is the most
AIR SPRINGS Some electronically controlled suspension sys- commonly used type. A MacPherson strut includes the suspension
tems use air springs. A basic air spring consists of a rubber air spring—a coil spring that surrounds the strut casing—so that it trans-
chamber, generally closed at the bottom by a piston fitted into a fers the weight of the body to the wheel.  SEE FIGURE 112–55.
control arm, or by a strut shock absorber.  SEE FIGURE 112–52 A MacPherson strut typically incorporates an upper and a lower
on page 1309. spring seat, a shock absorber mount and dust cap, a dust cover
Electronically controlled suspension systems that use air for the piston rod, and a bump stop. The upper mount secures the
springs as the only springs are available on some Hummer, and upper spring seat to the strut tower. A rubber bushing at the top of
many Ford, Mercury, and Lincoln vehicles. the strut absorbs vibrations. A bearing on a front-wheel strut allows
Some air springs are in effect auxiliary springs inside a coil- it to rotate on the vertical steering axis without rubbing against the
spring strut. In these designs, the coil spring supports the weight strut tower when the steering knuckle turns. The lower spring seat is
of the vehicle, while the air spring raises or lowers the body to attached to the strut casing.

1306 CHAPTER 1 12
 REBOUND
CHAMBER

REBOUND INTAKE
VALVE

RESERVE
CHAMBER

COMPRESSION
CHAMBER

COMPRESSION
INTAKE VALVE

REBOUND JOUNCE
(EXTENSION) (COMPRESSION)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 112–47 (a) A cutaway drawing of a typical double-tube shock absorber. (b) Notice the position of the intake and compression
valve during rebound (extension) and compression.

OIL PISTON
ROD

PISTON
VALVE

DEFLECTING
DISCS

FOOT
VALVE
JOUNCE REBOUND
FIGURE 112–48 Oil flow through a deflected disc-type piston valve. The deflecting disc can react rapidly to suspension movement. For
example, if a large bump is hit at high speed, the disc can deflect completely and allow the suspension to reach its maximum jounce
distance while maintaining a controlled rate of movement.

1307
 DOUBLE TUBE AIR SHOCK ABSORBER
SINGLE (MONO) TUBE

AIR
CHAMBER

PISTON ROD

PISTON ROD

GAS

PISTON
PISTON

OIL
FIGURE 112–51 A rubber tube forms an inflatable air chamber at
OIL the top of an air shock. The higher the air pressure in the chamber,
the stiffer the shock.

GAS

BOTTOM MODIFIED STRUTS Unlike a MacPherson unit, a modified

VALVE
strut does not include a spring as part of the assembly and is used
in the front on some vehicles and on the rear of others.  SEE
FIGURE 112–56. Most modified strut rear suspensions use coil
springs mounted on the lower control arm.

FIGURE 112–49 Gas-charged shock absorbers are manufac-

tured with a double-tube design similar to conventional shock
absorbers and with a single or monotube design.
BUMP STOPS
All suspension systems have a limit of travel. If the vehicle hits a
large bump in the road, the wheels are forced upward toward the
vehicle with tremendous force. This force is absorbed by the springs
of the suspension system. If the bump is large enough, the suspen-
sion is compressed to its mechanical limit. Instead of allowing the
metal components of the suspension to hit the frame or body of
the vehicle, a rubber or foam bumper is used to absorb and isolate
the suspension from the frame or body.  SEE FIGURE 112–57.
These bumpers are called bump stops, suspension bumpers,
strike-out bumpers, or jounce bumpers. Jounce means jolt, or to
cause to bounce or move up and down. Bumpers are made from
rubber or microcellular urethane. Urethane is a high-strength mate-
rial with good resistance to wear and tear as well as good chemical
resistance to most fluids. Forming urethane foam with small, regular
air cells makes the material ideal for jounce bumpers.
Damaged suspension-limiting bump stops can be caused by
the following:
1. Sagging springs that result in lower-than-normal ride (trim)
height
2. Worn or defective shock absorbers
Most suspensions also use a rubber or foam stop to limit the
downward travel of the suspension during rebound. The rebound
stop also prevents metal-to-metal contact of the suspension on
the frame when the vehicle is on a body-contact-type hoist and the
FIGURE 112–50 The shock absorber is on the right and the fluid wheels are allowed to hang or droop down. Some stops are built into
reservoir for the shock is on the left. the shock absorber or strut.

1308 CHAPTER 1 12
 ACTUATOR
MODIFIED
STRUT

STABILIZER
BAR AIR
SPRING

TIE
ROD

COIL
SPRING

STABILIZER
BAR LINK
AIR
SPRING

LOWER
CONTROL ARM

(a)

FIGURE 112–53 Some air springs are auxiliary units to the coil
spring and are used to control ride height while the coil spring is
the weight-bearing unit.

COIL-OVER
SHOCK ABSORBER

(b)

FIGURE 112–52 (a) The front suspension of a Lincoln with an

air-spring suspension. (b) Always check in the trunk for the cutoff
switch for a vehicle equipped with an air suspension before hoist-
ing or towing the vehicle.

FIGURE 112–54 A coil-over shock is a standard hydraulic shock

absorber with a coil spring wrapped around it to increase stiffness
and/or take some of the carrying weight off of the springs.

1309
 MACPHERSON STRUT MODIFIED STRUT

STRUT

COIL
SPRING

SPRING ON
LOWER CONTROL ARM
FIGURE 112–56 A modified strut used on the rear suspension; it
is part of the structural part of the assembly.

STRUT BASE
MOUNTS TO
KNUCKLE SUSPENSION
BUMPERS

LOWER
CONTROL
ARM

FIGURE 112–55 A strut is a structural part of the suspension and FRONT

includes the spring and shock absorber in one assembly.
SUSPENSION
BUMPER

? FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION

What Is a Track Rod?

A track rod, also called a Panhard rod, is used in the rear
REAR
of some suspension systems to keep the rear axle cen-
FIGURE 112–57 Suspension bumpers are used on all suspen-
tered under the center of the vehicle. It is a straight rod or
sion systems to prevent metal-to-metal contact between the sus-
channel that connects to the frame on one end and the
pension and the frame or body of the vehicle when the suspension
axle on the other end.
“bottoms out” over large bumps or dips in the road.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the types of suspensions and name their component parts. 4. Explain the difference between a load-carrying and a follower
2. Explain Hooke’s Law. (friction) ball joint.
3. Describe the purpose and function of a stabilizer bar.

1310 CHAPTER 112

 CHAPTER QUIZ
1. The spring rate of a spring is measured in units of ______________. 6. What suspension component is used to counteract body lean
a. lb per inch c. PSI during cornering?
b. ft-lb d. in.-lb a. Torsion bar
2. Two technicians are discussing torsion bars. Technician A says b. Strut rod
that many torsion bars are adjustable to allow for ride height c. Stabilizer bar
adjustment. Technician B says that torsion bars are usually d. Control arm
marked left and right and should not be switched side to side. 7. A center bolt is used in what type of spring?
Which technician is correct? a. Coil
a. Technician A only b. Leaf
b. Technician B only c. Torsion bar
c. Both Technicians A and B d. All of the above
d. Neither Technician A nor B 8. Two technicians are discussing air shocks. Technician A says
3. What component(s) is considered to be unsprung weight? that air is forced through small holes to dampen the ride. Tech-
a. Frame c. Wheels and tires nician B says that air shocks are conventional hydraulic shock
b. Body d. Both a and b absorbers with an airbag to control vehicle ride height. Which
4. Two technicians are discussing MacPherson struts. Techni- technician is correct?
cian A says that in most applications the entire strut assembly a. Technician A only
rotates when the front wheels are turned. Technician B says b. Technician B only
a typical MacPherson strut suspension system uses only one c. Both Technicians A and B
control arm and one ball joint per side. Which technician is d. Neither Technician A nor B
correct? 9. The owner of a pickup truck wants to cut the coil springs to
a. Technician A only lower the vehicle. Technician A says that the ride will be harsher
b. Technician B only than normal if the springs are cut. Technician B says that the
c. Both Technicians A and B springs could be damaged, especially if a cutting torch is used
d. Neither Technician A nor B to cut the springs. Which technician is correct?
5. Technician A says that regular replacement shock absorbers a. Technician A only
will raise the rear of a vehicle that is sagging down. Technician B b. Technician B only
says that replacement springs will be required to restore the c. Both Technicians A and B
proper ride height. Which technician is correct? d. Neither Technician A nor B
a. Technician A only 10. A MacPherson strut is a structural part of the vehicle.
b. Technician B only a. True
c. Both Technicians A and B b. False
d. Neither Technician A nor B

chapter FRONT SUSPENSIONS

AND SERVICE
113
OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 113, the reader will be able to: • Prepare for ASE Suspension and Steering (A4) certification
test content area “B” (Suspension System Diagnosis and Repair). • Explain how to perform a road test, a dry park test, a visual
inspection, and a bounce test. • Discuss the procedures for testing load-carrying and follower-type ball joints. • Describe ball joint
replacement procedures. • List the steps required to replace control arm and stabilizer bar bushings. • Describe how to replace coil
springs, MacPherson struts, and torsion bars safety. • Explain routine service procedures of the suspension system.

KEY TERMS: A-arm 1313 • Cow catcher 1325 • Cuppy tire wear 1324 • Dry park test 1317 • Durometer 1330 • Indicator ball
joints 1318 • Kingpin 1312 • Pinch bolt 1321 • Radius rod 1312 • SLA 1313 • Steering knuckle 1312 • Strut suspension 1314
• Twin I-beam 1312

F RO N T SU SPE N SI O N S A N D S ERVIC E 1311

 KNUCKLE CAP

SEAL GASKET

SHIM
BUSHING

SPINDLE

THRUST
LOCKPIN WASHER

BUSHING
BEARING

FIGURE 113–1 Most early vehicles used single straight

axles.
KINGPIN

GASKET

KNUCKLE CAP
FRONT SUSPENSION
FIGURE 113–2 Typical kingpin used with a solid axle.
TYPES
COIL SPRING
SOLID AXLES Early cars and trucks used a solid (or straight) SHOCK ABSORBER
front axle to support the front wheels.  SEE FIGURE 113–1.
A solid-axle front suspension is very strong and is still being RADIUS ARM
used in the manufacture of medium and heavy trucks. The main
disadvantage of solid-axle design is its lack of ride quality. When
one wheel hits a bump or dip in the road, the forces are transferred
through the axle to the opposite wheel. Solid axles are currently
used in the rear of most vehicles.

I-BEAM
KINGPINS At the end of many solid I-beam or tube axles are AXLES
kingpins that allow the front wheels to rotate for steering. Kingpins
are hardened steel pins that attach the steering knuckle to the front
FIGURE 113–3 Twin I-beam front suspension. Rubber bushings
axle, allowing the front wheels to move for steering. Kingpins usually
are used to support the I-beams to the frame and help isolate road
have grease fittings to lubricate the kingpin bushings. Failure to keep
noise.
these bushings lubricated with chassis grease can cause wear and
freeplay or can cause the pins to become galled (seized or frozen),
resulting in hard steering and/or loud noise while turning.  SEE
TECH TIP
FIGURE 113–2.

Radius Rod Bushing Noise

TWIN I-BEAMS A twin I-beam front suspension was used When the radius rod bushing on a Ford truck or van
for over 30 years on Ford pickup trucks and vans, beginning in the deteriorates, the most common complaint from the driver
mid-1960s. Strong steel twin beams that cross provide indepen- is noise.  SEE FIGURE 113–4. Besides causing tire
dent front suspension operation with the strength of a solid front wear, worn or defective radius rod bushing deterioration
axle. Early versions of the twin I-beam systems used kingpins, while can cause the following:
later models used ball joints to support the steering knuckle and
1. A clicking sound when braking (it sounds as if the
spindle. Coil springs are usually used on twin I-beam suspensions,
brake caliper may be loose).
even though the original design and patent used leaf springs.  SEE
2. A clunking noise when hitting bumps.
FIGURE 113–3.
To control longitudinal (front-to-back) support, a radius rod When the bushing deteriorates, the axles can move
is attached to each beam and is anchored to the frame of the truck forward and backward with less control. Noise is the first
using rubber bushings. These bushings allow the front axle to move sign that something is wrong. Without proper axle sup-
up and down while still insulating road noise and vibration from the port, handling and cornering can also be affected.
frame and body.

1312 CHAPTER 113

 UPPER
CONTROL ARM
COIL
SPRING
KNUCKLE
ANTIROLL
RADIUS ROD BAR
BUSHING

FIGURE 113–4 The rubber radius rod bushing absorbs road

shocks and helps isolate road noise.

LOWER
SHORT/LONG-ARM (SLA) SUSPENSION
CONTROL
ARM
UPPER SPACER
CONTROL ARM BAR

FRONT VIEW
PIVOTS
FRAME

UPPER
CONTROL
ARM
LOWER
CONTROL ARM SHOCK
ABSORBER
FIGURE 113–5 The upper control arm is shorter than the lower
control arm on a short/long-arm (SLA) suspension.

SHORT/LONG-ARM
SUSPENSIONS LOWER
CONTROL ARM

The short/long-arm suspension uses a short upper control arm and

a longer lower control arm and usually is referred to as the SLA-type
suspension. BUMP
The two main links in a short/long-arm (SLA) suspension are REAR VIEW STOP
the upper control arm and the lower control arm. The upper con- FIGURE 113–6 A typical SLA front suspension using coil springs.
trol arm is shorter than the lower one.  SEE FIGURE 113–5. This
type of suspension system goes by a variety of names, including
unequal-arm suspension, double-wishbone suspension, or A-arm a ball joint. Bushings between the inner arm mounts and the pivot
suspension. Unequal arm refers to the fact that the two arms are of bar allow the arm to swing vertically. The lower control arm is also
different lengths, while double-wishbone and A-arm derive from the A-shaped with two inboard pivot mounts and a ball joint connection
shape of the arms, which are frequently triangular with one mounting at the knuckle. Bolts attach the inboard ends of the lower arm to
point at the knuckle and two at the frame. When an SLA suspension brackets that extend from the bottom of the frame crossmember.
uses a straight, two-point lower control arm, there is almost always Bushings on the inboard mounts allow the arm to pivot vertically.
a strut rod that braces the lower arm against the frame. The strut The coil springs seat between the lower control arm and a
rod can attach to the frame at a point either forward or to the rear bracket below the frame side member. The shock absorber attaches
of the control arm. to the lower control arm and the frame side member.
A strut rod, also called a reaction rod, provides support to the In a typical coil spring on the upper control arm design, a por-
axle during braking and acceleration forces. tion of the unit-body wheel well is reinforced to withstand spring
Using a strut rod provides triangulation between the wheel force and act as the upper spring seats.  SEE FIGURE 113–7.
and the frame. Triangulation means that the front suspension has a Short/long-arm suspensions use longitudinal torsion bars, espe-
three-point brace that resists forces from every direction, while still cially in trucks.
allowing the wheels to pivot on the steering axis. The forward end of the torsion bar has external splines or hex-
Locating the coil spring on the lower control arm is the most agonal (six sided) shaped end and shares the splined socket of the
common SLA-type suspension configuration.  SEE FIGURE 113–6. torque arm with the control arm through a bolt. Because the torque
The upper control arm is A-shaped, with two mounting points arm is rigidly bolted to the control arm, motion transfers to the tor-
at the frame side member and one at the steering knuckle. The in- sion bar whenever the control arm pivots. The torsion bar extends
board ends of the arm attach to a pivot bar that is rigidly bolted to the rearward from the control arm and connects to an anchor arm that
frame, and the outboard end connects to the steering knuckle with attaches to a frame crossmember. The torsion bar splines to the

F RO N T SU SPE N SI O N S A N D S ERVIC E 1313

 SLA SUSPENSION - MACPHERSON STRUT SUSPENSION
COIL SPRING ON UPPER ARM

COIL
SPRING

SHOCK
ABSORBER

UPPER
ARM

STRUT

LOWER
ARM

FIGURE 113–7 An SLA-type suspension with the coil spring

placed on top of the upper control arm. CROSSMEMBER

ANCHOR
ARM
UPPER TORSION
CONTROL ARM BAR

ANTIROLL
BAR ADJUSTMENT
BOLT
LOWER
SHOCK ARM
ABSORBER

LOWER
CONTROL ARM

ANTIROLL
BAR
STRUT
ROD STEERING
2WD KNUCKLE

ANCHOR FIGURE 113–9 A typical MacPherson strut showing all of the

TORSION
ARM components of the assembly. A strut includes the shock and the
UPPER BAR spring in one structural assembly.
CONTROL
ARM

ADJUSTMENT
anchor arm and the anchor arm is secured to the frame by a bolt and
BOLT adjusting nut. The adjusting nut varies the spring force of the torsion
bar to establish the ride height of the vehicle.  SEE FIGURE 113–8.

ANTIROLL
BAR

LOWER
STRUT SUSPENSION
CONTROL ARM

SHOCK Strut suspension can be of several types. A MacPherson strut in-

ABSORBER 4WD cludes the suspension spring that transfers the weight of the body
FIGURE 113–8 A torsion bar SLA suspension can use either the to the wheel. A MacPherson strut is the main, load-carrying suspen-
lower or the upper control arm. sion spring.  SEE FIGURE 113–9.

1314 CHAPTER 113