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Nicaragua–United States relations

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Nicaragua–United States relations
Map indicating locations of Nicaragua and United States

Nicaragua
United States
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of Nicaragua, Washington, D.C. Embassy of the United States, Managua
Friendly bilateral relations now exist between Nicaragua and the United States.
However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, tensions were high and American
intervention was frequent. In the 1980s, due to Red Scare paranoia and an attempt
to put down socialism in the region, the U.S proceeded to wage an undeclared war
against the left-wing Sandinista movement by funding the Contra groups until it was
defeated in the election in 1990.[1]

History
The United States Marine Corps first landed in Nicaragua in 1852. According to
Captain Harry Allenson Ellsworth, a Marine Corps historian, their presence was "for
the protection of American lives and interests." One occasion was to protect an
American mining company where workers were threatening a strike. Another time they
just stayed long enough to burn down San Juan del Norte because – seven years
earlier – the American minister to Nicaragua had been kept there overnight against
his will before he was released just the following morning. Most Marine landings
involved supporting one Nicaraguan faction against another.

Walker's 1855 filibustering

In the traditional historiography by historians in the United States and in Latin
America, William Walker's filibustering represented the high tide of antebellum
American imperialism. His brief seizure of Nicaragua in 1855 is typically called a
representative expression of Manifest destiny with the added factor of trying to
expand slavery into Central America. Historian Michel Gobat, however, presents a
strongly revisionist interpretation. He argues that Walker was invited in by
Nicaraguan liberals who were trying to force economic modernization and political
liberalism. Walker's government comprised those liberals, as well as Yankee
colonizers, and European radicals. Walker even included some local Catholics as
well as indigenous peoples, Cuban revolutionaries, and local peasants. His
coalition was much too complex and diverse to survive long, but it was not the
attempted projection of American power, concludes Gobat.[2]

American protectorate 1913 to 1933

According to Benjamin Harrison, Wilson was committed in Latin America to the
fostering of democracy and stable governments, as well as fair economic policies.
[3] Wilson was largely frustrated by the chaotic situation in Nicaragua. Adolfo
Díaz won the presidency in 1911 and replaced European financing with loans from New
York banks. Facing a Liberal rebellion, in 1913 he called on the United States for
protection and President Woodrow Wilson obliged. Nicaragua assumed a quasi-
protectorate status under the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty. Under the treaty Nicaragua
promised it would not declare war on anyone, would not grant territorial
concessions, and would not contract outside debts without Washington's approval. It
permitted the US to build a naval base at Fonseca Bay, and gave the US the sole
option to construct and control an inter-oceanic canal. The Panama Canal opened in
1914 and the US had no intention of building another canal, but wanted the
guarantee that no other nation could do so. The US paid Nicaragua $3 million for
this option. The original draft also asserted the duty of the United States to
intervene militarily in case of domestic turmoil – but that provision was rejected
by Democrats in the Senate. Nevertheless the US did send in Marines to protect the
government and suppress local uprisings such as that of Augusto César Sandino after
1927.[4][5] The treaty was extremely unpopular in the Caribbean region, but it was
observed by both sides until 1933. Díaz was now able to serve out his entire term;
he retired in 1917, and moved to the United States. (He returned briefly to power
in 1926–1929). According to George Baker, the main effect of the treaty was a
higher degree of both political and financial stability in Nicaragua.[6] President
Herbert Hoover (1929–1933) opposed the relationship. Finally in 1933 President
Franklin D Roosevelt, invoking his new Good Neighbor policy ended American
intervention.[7]

Nicaraguan Revolution
Main article: Nicaraguan Revolution
In the 1970s the FSLN began a campaign of kidnappings which led to national
recognition of the group in the Nicaraguan media and solidification of the group as
a force in opposition to the Somoza Regime, which ruled Nicaragua since 1937. The
Somoza Regime, which included the Nicaraguan National Guard, a force highly trained
by the U.S. military, declared a state of siege, and proceeded to use torture,
extrajudicial killings, intimidation and censorship of the press in order to combat
the FSLN attacks.[8] This led to international condemnation of the regime and in
1978 the administration of U.S. president Jimmy Carter cut off aid to the Somoza
regime due to its human rights violations (Boland Amendment). In response, Somoza
lifted the state of siege in order to continue receiving aid.[9]

Contra War
Upon their inauguration in January, 1981, the Reagan Administration supported a
strong anti-communist strategy in Latin America. The CIA funneled logistical,
military, and financial support to Contras in neighboring Honduras, waging a
guerrilla war to topple the Sandinista Administration in Nicaragua. In 1984, the
CIA's 'Unilaterally Controlled Latin Assets' (UCLA) mined many Nicaraguan harbors,
leading to several Nicaraguan and foreign ships being damaged or sunk, and the
passing of the Boland Amendment by US Congress.[10] Though the Boland Amendment
made it illegal, the Reagan Administration continued to fund and arm the Contras
through the Iran-Contra affair.[11]
In July 1988, the Sandinista government expelled US Ambassador Richard Melton and
several embassy staff, prompting reciprocal actions by the United States.[12]
According to The New York Times, following Melton's expulsion, only personnel with
"rudimentary Spanish" was left behind, complicating contacts between the embassy
and opposition figures.[13] During this time, the 40 members of the embassy were
routinely followed around by Nicaraguan policemen, and, according to US officials,
frequently stopped and harassed.[13] A visa freeze for new US diplomats in
Nicaragua was put in place from July 1988 to January 21, 1989, when US President
George H. W. Bush was inaugurated.[14]

In December 1989, in the aftermath of the United States invasion of Panama, the US
embassy in Managua was encircled by Sandinista troops and T-55 tanks, in response
to the United States doing the same to the Nicaraguan embassy in Panama.[15]
Despite the military buildup, the personnel of the US Embassy in Managua kept
working as usual, with tensions cooling down the following day, when both Nicaragua
and the United States reduced their military presence around each other's embassies
in Managua and Panama City.[16]

Recent history
After being condemned for terrorism, the U.S has aimed to support the consolidation
of the democratic process in Nicaragua with the 1990 election of President
Chamorro. The United States has promoted national reconciliation, encouraging
Nicaraguans to resolve their problems through dialogue and compromise. It
recognizes as legitimate all political forces that abide by the democratic process
and eschew violence. U.S. assistance is focused on strengthening democratic
institutions, stimulating sustainable economic growth, and supporting the health
and basic education sectors.

Until recently, the resolution of U.S. citizen claims arising from Sandinista-era
confiscations and expropriations still figured prominently in bilateral policy
concerns. Section 527 of the Foreign Relations Authorization Act (1994) prohibits
certain U.S. assistance and support for a government of a country that has
confiscated U.S. citizen property, unless the government has taken certain remedial
steps. After the Secretary of State had twenty times issued annual national
interest waivers of the Section 527 prohibition, in August 2015 the U.S. Embassy in
Managua announced a decision that the waiver was no longer needed, in a statement
that included "The United States recognizes the work of the current government
administration ‘to resolve pending claims in an expeditious and satisfactory
manner.’"[17]

Other key U.S. policy goals for Nicaragua are:[18]

Improving respect for human rights and resolving outstanding high-profile human
rights cases;
Developing a free market economy with respect for property and intellectual
property rights;
Ensuring effective civilian control over defense and security policy;
Increasing the effectiveness of Nicaragua's efforts to combat trans-border crimes,
including narcotics trafficking, money laundering, illegal alien smuggling,
international terrorist and criminal organizations, and trafficking in persons; and
Reforming the judicial system and implementing good governance.
Since 1990, the United States has provided over $1.2 billion in assistance to
Nicaragua. About $260 million of that was for debt relief, and another $450 million
was for balance-of-payments support. The U.S. also provided $93 million in 1999,
2000, and 2001 as part of its overall response to Hurricane Mitch. In response to
Hurricane Felix, the United States provided over $400,000 in direct aid to
Nicaragua to support recovery operations from the damage inflicted in September
2007. Aside from funding for Hurricanes Mitch and Felix, the levels of assistance
have fallen incrementally to reflect the improvements in Nicaragua. Assistance has
been focused on promoting more citizen political participation, compromise, and
government transparency; stimulating sustainable growth and income; and fostering
better-educated and healthier families. The Millennium Challenge Corporation signed
a 5-year, $175 million compact with Nicaragua on July 14, 2005. The Millennium
Challenge Compact is intended to reduce poverty and spur economic growth by funding
projects in the regions of León and Chinandega aimed at reducing transportation
costs and improving access to markets for rural communities; increasing wages and
profits from farming and related enterprises in the region; and increasing
investment by strengthening property rights.[19]

Embassy of Nicaragua in Washington, D.C.

NICA Act
Main article: Nicaragua Investment Conditionality Act
In 2016, the Nicaragua Investment Conditionality Act of 2016 (NICA) was passed by
the United States House of Representatives. It was unable to be approved by the
Senate or the president due to the 2016 presidential election.[citation needed] The
bill would, as a response to the alleged election fraud committed by president
Daniel Ortega during the 2016 election, prevent Nicaragua from taking additional
loans until they are willing to "[take] effective steps to hold free, fair and
transparent elections." The bill was reintroduced to the House of Representatives
again during a new session in 2017.

The Nicaraguan government and every single political party[citation needed]

(including those who originally voiced concern over the election) opposed this
bill, with Nicaraguan Vice President Rosario Murillo calling it a “reactionary and
interventionist" action that would “undermine the right of Nicaragua to continue
developing the socialist model.”.[20] All ALBA member states are opposed to the
bill.[21] An international group of prominent trade unionists have also voiced
their opposition to the bill by signing a solidarity statement in support of the
Government of Nicaragua:[22]

On December 20, 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump signed the NICA Act into law
after it was unanimously approved by Congress. This enactment comes eight months
after the beginning of the 2018–2021 Nicaraguan protests.[23]

School of the Americas and Fr. Roy Bourgeois

In 1987, United States Senator Bob Dole visited Managua and criticized President
Daniel Ortega for two of Nicaragua's political prisoners. Ortega offered to free
the two political prisoners, who were opposition lawyers, in exchange for the
freedom of the founder of School of the Americas Watch, Roy Bourgeois.[24]

In 2012, Nicaragua ended relations with the School of the Americas, refusing to
send any more trainees to the institute. In a news release, it stated that the
School of the Americas has victimized Nicaragua (likely referring to the Contras,
who were trained at the institute[25]).[26]

See also
flag Nicaragua portal
flag United States portal
icon Politics portal
Foreign relations of Nicaragua
Foreign relations of the United States
Embassy of Nicaragua, Washington, D.C.
Embassy of the United States, Managua
Ambassadors of the United States to Nicaragua
Latin America–United States relations
U.S. support for the Contras
CIA activities in Nicaragua
References
Thomas W. Walker, et al. Reagan versus the Sandinistas: The undeclared war on
Nicaragua (Routledge, 2019)
Michel Gobat, Empire by Invitation: William Walker and Manifest Destiny in Central
America (Harvard UP, 2018). See this roundtable evaluation by scholars at H-Diplo.
Benjamin T Harrison, "Woodrow Wilson in Nicaragua," Caribbean Quarterly (2005)
51#1 pp 25-36.
Arthur S. Link, Wilson: The New Freedom (1956) pp. 331–342.
Arthur S. Link, ed., The Papers of Woodrow Wilson volume 27: 1913 (1978) pp 470,
526–530, 552
George W. Baker, Jr., "The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua,1913-1921,"
Americas (1966) 22#4 pp 339-376.
Alan McPherson, "Herbert Hoover, Occupation Withdrawal, and the Good Neighbor
Policy." Presidential Studies Quarterly 44.4 (2014): 623-639. online[dead link]
"Sandinista Revolution".
Military deployment [dead link]
Babcock, Charles (April 18, 1984) [April 18th 1984]. "CIA Directly Oversaw Attack
in October on Nicaragua Oil Facility". The Washington Post. p. 1. Retrieved Dec 16,
2022.
"The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years on".
"U.S. Expels Nicaragua's Ambassador and 7 Others". Los Angeles Times. 1988-07-13.
Retrieved 2024-01-12.
Uhlig, Mark A. (Feb 12, 1989). "For Embassy in Managua, Isolation". The New York
Times. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
Uhlig, Mark A. (January 21, 1989). "Nicaragua, to Improve Relations, Lifts Visa
Freeze on U.S. Envoys".
"Sandinista troops surround U.S. Embassy – UPI Archives". UPI. Retrieved 2024-01-
12.
"U.S.-NICARAGUA TENSIONS EASE". Deseret News. 1989-12-22. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
"Nicaragua: US Eliminates Property Waiver | Q COSTA RICA". Q Costa Rica. 8 August
2015. Retrieved 24 January 2020.
Pamela Neumann, "The More Things Change: Continuities in US Foreign Policy toward
Nicaragua under the Trump Administration." in The Future of US Empire in the
Americas (Routledge, 2020) pp. 106-127.
Nick M. Brown, "Millennium Challenge Corporation: Overview and Issues."
Congressional Research Service Report for Congress (2019).
"Condemnation of US threats against Nicaragua". Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign
Action Group news. London: Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign. 10 April 2017. Retrieved
12 April 2017.
"ALBA members denounce proposed NICA Act". Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign Action
Group news. London: Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign. 11 April 2017. Retrieved 16 May
2017.
"Trade Union Leaders Voice Opposition to NICA Act". Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign
Action Group news. London: Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign. 8 May 2017. Retrieved 16
May 2017.
"Statement by the President". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved 20 December 2018 – via
National Archives.
"U.S. Priest in Jail Gets a Lift: He's in the News in Managua". New York Times. 8
September 1987. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
"Background On U.S. Military Involvement In Nicaragua". SOA Watch. Washington,
D.C. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
Tunzi, Porsia (7 September 2012). "Nicaragua to no longer send troops to School of
the Americas". National Catholic Reporter. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from U.S. Bilateral
Relations Fact Sheets. United States Department of State.

Ambassador – U.S. Embassy Managua, Nicaragua

Further reading
Baker, George W. "The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua, 1913–1921." The Americas
22.4 (1966): 339-376 The Wilson Administration and Nicaragua, 1913–1921 online
Bemis, Samuel Flagg. The Latin American Policy of the United States. (1943) passim
and p. 465 online
Bermann, Karl. Under the big stick: Nicaragua and the United States since 1848
(Boston: South End Press, 1986)
Booth, John A., Christine J. Wade, and Thomas Walker, eds. Understanding Central
America: Global Forces, Rebellion, and Change (Westview Press, 2014)
Colburn, Forrest D. Post-Revolutionary Nicaragua (University of California Press,
2020).
Feinberg, Richard E. Nicaragua: Revolution and restoration (Foreign Policy at
Brookings, 2018) online.
Hager Jr, Robert P., and Robert S. Snyder. "The United States and Nicaragua:
understanding the breakdown in relations." Journal of Cold War Studies 17.2 (2015):
3-35.
Harrison, Benjamin T. "Woodrow Wilson and Nicaragua." Caribbean Quarterly 51.1
(2005): 25-36. online
Hoekstra, Quint. "Helping the contras: The effectiveness of US support for foreign
rebels during the Nicaraguan Contra War (1979–1990)." Studies in Conflict &
Terrorism 44.6 (2021): 521-541.
Lee, David Johnson. The Ends of Modernization: Nicaragua and the United States in
the Cold War Era (Cornell UP, 2021).
Kagan, Robert. A Twilight Struggle: American Power and Nicaragua, 1977–1990 (1996).
Munro, Dana G. "Dollar Diplomacy in Nicaragua, 1909-1913." Hispanic American
Historical Review 38.2 (1958): 209-234. online
Neumann, Pamela. "The More Things Change: Continuities in US Foreign Policy toward
Nicaragua under the Trump Administration." in The Future of US Empire in the
Americas (Routledge, 2020) pp. 106–127.
Pastor, Robert A. Not Condemned to Repetition: The United States and Nicaragua
(Routledge, 2018).
Roberts, Kenneth. “Bullying and Bargaining: The United States, Nicaragua, and
Conflict Resolution in Central America.” International Security 15#2, (1990), pp.
67–102, online
Travis, Philip W. Reagan's war on terrorism in Nicaragua: The outlaw state
(Lexington Books, 2016).
Walker, Thomas W., et al. Reagan versus the Sandinistas: The undeclared war on
Nicaragua (Routledge, 2019).
Historiography
Bell, Aaron T. ed. Gale Researcher Guide for: The Central American Crisis (Gale,
Cengage Learning, 2018).
External links
The Sanctuary Movement from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
vte
Nicaragua Nicaragua–United States relations United States
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Nicaragua Foreign relations of Nicaragua
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United States Foreign relations of the United States
Categories: Nicaragua–United States relationsBilateral relations of
NicaraguaBilateral relations of the United States
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