Transducers

Input most of the times is non-electrical, hence a device is required

to convert non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity.
Non-electrical form of energy can be mechanical, chemical, optical
or thermal.
A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another.
 The input transducer is called the sensor.
 The output transducer is called the actuator.

1
Input and Output
Transducers

2
 Transducer
• These are widely used in measurement work because not all quantities that need to be
measured can be displayed aseasily as others.
• Abetter measurement of a quantity can usually be made if it maybe converted to
another form, which is more conveniently or accurately displayed.
• For example, the common mercurythermometerconverts variations in temperature into
variations in the length of a column of mercury. Since the variation in the length of the
mercury column is rather simple to measure, the mercury thermometer becomes a
convenient device for measuring temperature.
• The transducer is a device, which provides a usable output in response to specific input
measured, which may be physical or mechanical quantity, property or condition.
• The transducer maybe mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical, acoustic,
thermal nuclear, or a combination of any two or more of these.
 Basic requirements of a transducers
• The main function of a transducer is to respond only for the measurement under
specified limits for which it is designed.
• It is, therefore, necessary to know the relationship between the input and output
quantities and it should be fixed. Transducers should meet the following basic
requirements.

⚫ Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding overload and some safety

arrangement should be provided for overload protection.
⚫ Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should be linear and it should produce these
characteristics in symmetrical way.
⚫ Repeatability. It should reproduce same output signal when the same input signal is
applied again and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g. temperature,
pressure, humidity etc.
Basic Requirements Of a Transducer
(cont’d)
⚫ High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output signal
should be good i.e. the ratio of the signal to the noise should
be high and the amplitude of the output signal should be
enough.
⚫ High Reliability and Stability. It should give minimum error
in measurement for temperature variations, vibrations and
other various changes in surroundings.
⚫ Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be faithful to
input when taken as a function of time. The effect is analyzed
as the frequency response.
Basic Requirements Of a Transducer
(cont’d)
⚫ No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic during
measurement while input signal is varied from its low value
to high value and vice-versa.
⚫ Residual Deformation. There should be no deformation of
testing material after the removal of any pressure after long
period of application.
Classification Of Transducers
⚫ The transducers may be classified in various ways such as on
the basis of electrical principles involved, methods of
application, methods of energy conversion used, nature of
output signal etc.
 CLASSIFICATON OF TRANSDUCERS

PRIMARY AND ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ANALOG AND Classification Transducers and
SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS DIGITAL based on Inverse
TRANSDUCERS
TRANSDUCERS transduction Transducers
principle(Resistive
, Inductive,
Capacitive)

8
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

9
 Classification based on transduction principle
• Depending on the transduction elements how to convert physical
phenomena into output electrical signals.
• Transducers are classified as follows
1) Resistive
2) Inductive
3) Capacitive
4) Electromagnetic
5) Piezoelectric
6) Photo emissive
7) Photo-resistive
8) Potentiometric
9) Thermo electric
10) Frequency generating
 Primary and Secondary Transducers
• Transducers, on the basisof methods of applications, maybe classified into primary and
secondary transducers.
• When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is
converted into the electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary
transducer.
Ex: Thermistor, Strain gauge
• When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output
being of some form other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for
conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of secondary
transducers.
Ex: LVDT(Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
Bourdon tube(to measure pressure).
 Active and Passive Transducers
• Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy conversion used, may be classified into
active and passive transducers.
• Active transducers are Self- generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, whichdevelop their
output theformofelectricalvoltageor currentwithout any auxiliary energy/power source,are
called the active transducers. Such transducers draw energy from the system under quantity
under measurement. Normal such transducers give very small output and, therefore, use
of amplifier becomes essential.
• Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance
changes with the change in input signal, are called the passivetransducers.
• These transducers require external power source for energy conversion. In such
transducer electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance causes a change
in voltages current or frequency of the external power source.
• These transducers maydraw sour energy from the system under measurement. Resistive,
inductive and capacitive transducer falls in this category.
 Analog and Digital Transducers
• Transducers, on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and
digital transducers.
• Analog transducer converts input signal into output signal, which is a continuous
function of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermo-couple etc.
• Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse e.g.
it gives discrete output.
Ex: Turbine meter used in flow measurements
• Digital transducers are becoming more and more popular now-a-days because of
advantages associated with digital measuring instruments and also due to the effect that
digital signalscan be transmitted over a long distance without causing much distortion
due to amplitude variation and phase shift.
• Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an ADC (analog-to-digital convector) is
called a digital transducer.
 Transducers and Inverse Transducers.
⚫ Transducer, as already defined, is a device that converts a non-
electrical quantity into an electrical quantity. Normally a
transducer and associated circuit has a non-electrical input
and an electrical output, for example a thermo-couple,
photoconductive cell, pressure gauge, strain gauge etc. An
inverse transducer is a device that converts an electrical
quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is a precision
actuator having an electrical input and a low-power non-
electrical output.
 Transducers and Inverse
Transducers(cont’d)
⚫ For examples a piezoelectric crystal and transnational and angular
moving-coil elements can be employed as inverse transducers. Many
data-indicating and recording devices are basically inverse transducers.
An ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current into mechanical
movement and the characteristics of such an instrument placed at the
output of a measuring system are important. Amost useful application
of inverse transducers is in feedback measuring systems.
 Factors for Selection Of a Transducer
⚫ In a measurement system the transducer (or a combination of transducers) is the input element
with the critical function of transforming some physical quantity to a proportional electrical
signal. Soselection of an appropriate transducer is most important for having accurate results.
The following factors should be considered while selecting a transducer.
 MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
• Velocity is the first derivative of displacement.
• Velocity is 2 types 1) Linear velocity 2) Angular Velocity
• Linear velocity is defined as the linear displacement per unit
time.

• Linear Velocity transducers are 2 types

1) Electromagnetic transducer

2) Seismic type velocity transducer

18
 1.ELECTROMAGNETIC
TRANSDUCERS
• The most commonly used transducer for measurement of
linear velocities .
• This transducer utilizes the voltage produced in a coil on
account of change in flux linkages resulting from change in
reluctance.
• They are classified into two types
A)Moving magnet type

B)Moving coil type

19
 A)MOVING MAGNET TYPE TRANSDUCER

• The sensing element is a rod type permanent magnet that is

rigidly coupled to the device whose velocity is being
measured .
• There is a coil surrounding the
permanent magnet.

• When the object moves, the motion of the rod causes a change
in the flux due to change in airgap and a voltage is induced in
the coil and the amplitude of the voltage is directly
proportional to the velocity of the moving object.
• The polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of
motion

20
• For a coil placed in magnetic field the voltage generated is:

e0= BANv

= Kv

K=BAN= constant
B=flux density ; Wb/m2 ,
A= area of coil; m2

N= Number of turns of coil,

v=relative velocity of magnet with respect to coil

21
 ADVANTAGES

1. The maintenance requirements of these transducers are

negligible, because there are no mechanical surfaces or
contacts.

2. The output voltage is linearly proportional to velocity.

3. Manufacturing cost is low.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The performance of these transducers is adversely affected
by stray magnetic fields. These fields can cause noise.

2. The frequency response is usually limited and is stated.

3. These transducers are not very useful for measurement of
vibrations because their calibration deteriorates as contact with
steel tools etc. leads to progressive demagnetization.
22
 B)MOVING COIL TYPE VELOCITY
TRANSDUCER(Electrodynamic Transducer)
 It operates essentially through the action of a coil moving in a
magnetic field.

 A voltage is generated in the coil which is proportional to the

velocity of the coil.
e0= BLVi

e0= output voltage induced in a conductor(v)

L= length of the conductor(m)
B=flux density ; Wb/m2

Vi=relative velocity of magnet and conductor(m/s)

23
• The coil is mounted on a pivoted arm.
• There is a mass attached at the end of the arm.
• The velocity to be measured is applied to the arm and therefore
the coil moves in the field of permanent magnet.
• A voltage is generated on account of motion of the coil in the
magnetic field.
• The output voltage is proportional to the velocity.
ADVANTAGES
1. This is a more satisfactory arrangement as the system now
forms a closed magnetic circuit with a constant air gap, and the
whole device is contained in an antimagnetic case which
reduces the effects of stray magnetic fields.
2. Air gap is maintained constant. 24
2.SEISMIC TYPE VELOCITY TRANSDUCER

25
26
 MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR VELOCITY
• Angular Velocity can be measured using tachometer.
• The tachometer(Mechanical Transducer) may be defined as:
• i. An instrument used for measure of angular velocity , as of shaft , either by
registering the total number of revolutions during the period of contact, or by
indicating directly the number of revolutions per minute(rpm).
• ii. An instrument which either continuously indicates the value of rotary speed
or continuously displays a reading of average speed over rapidly operated short
intervals of time
Angular Velocity transducers are 2 types

1) DC Tachometer Generator

2) AC Tachometer Generator
27
DC Tachometer Generator
 DC Tachometer Generator
Construction:
• It consists of a permanent magnet and a small armature. The armature placed between the poles of the magnet. The
shaft whose angular velocity is to be measured is coupled to the armature.
Working Principle:
• When the object rotates the armature also revolves in the magnetic field of permanent magnet. As armature is made of
conducting material its rotation results in the generation of emf.
• The current flowing in the armature is collected through commutator and brushes and thus voltage is generated, which
can be measured using a moving coil voltmeter. Series resistance is provided to avoid short circuit and for controlling
heavy current of armature.
• Voltage generated is proportional to the speed of the object and direction of rotation is determined by polarity of output
voltage.
Advantages:
i. The direction of rotation is directly indicated by the polarity of the output voltage.
ii. The output voltage is typically 10mv/rpm
iii. Easy to construct
iv. Reliable to measure shaft speed
v. Conventional dc type voltmeter is used for measuring induced voltage.
Disadvantages:
i. Errors can be introduced due to change in the resistance of commutator and brushes.
ii. Commutator and brushes require periodic maintainance.
iii. Ro is kept high as compared to Ri.
AC Tachometer Generator
 AC Tachometer Generator
• In AC tachometer generator, the coil is wound on the stator and the magnet is
allowed to rotate.
Construction:
• The shaft whose angular velocity is to be measured is connected to the
rotating magnet. It consists of an alternator, stationary armature(stator),
rotating field system(rotor).
Working Principle:
• When magnet rotates, the flux lines are cut by the stationary coil and thus
according to the electromagnetic induction law, emf is induced in the stator
coil.
• The voltage generated by the ac tachometer is rectified and smoothened
before it is measured by moving coil voltmeter. Amplitude of induced voltage
gives the measure of speed of rotation.
 Transducers for measurement of Acceleration
• Accelerometers are used to measure the acceleration of a moving body.
Piezoelectric Accelerometer:
takes mechanical input and produces electrical output.
Works on the principle of piezoelectric effect.
piezoelectric effect:
When a mechanical force is applied to a piezoelectric material(crystal), the dimensions of that
material gets changed resulting in the generation of electric charge (or) potential across the
surface of the crystal.
Construction of piezoelectric transducer:
• It consists of piezoelectric crystal sandwiched between two electrodes and has a mass
placed on it.
• The unit is fastened to the base whose acceleration characteristics are to be obtained.
• They can threaded to the base acts as a spring and squeezes the mass against the crystal.
• Mass exerts a force on the crystal and a certain o/p voltage is generated
 Passive Electrical Transducers
• Passive electrical transducers are the transducers that are based on the
variation of the parameters due to application of any external stimulus.

• Some of the passive electrical transducers are strain gauges, linear variable
differential transducer(LVDT), capacitive transducer.

• The passive transducers utilize the principle of controlling a dc excitation

voltage or an ac carrier signal. The actual transducer consists of a usually
passive circuit element which changes its value as a function of the physical
variable to be measured.
 Strain Gauges
• The strain gauge is a passive, resistive transducer which converts the
mechanical elongation or compression into a resistance change.
• The strain gauge is a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical
resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.

• If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on

account of the fact that both length and diameter of conductor change. Also
there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor when it is strained
and this property is known as “Piezo resistive effect”. Therefore strain gauges
are also known as “Piezo resistive gauges”.
• The strain gauges can be used for measurement of strain(elongation or
compression per unit length) and associated stress(force per unit area) in
experimental stress analysis.
 Strain Gauges- Basic principle involved
• When a gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length increases while its area
of cross-section decreases as shown in below fig. Since the resistance of a
conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
area of cross-section, the resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain.
This property is known as “piezo resistive effect”.
 Types of strain gauges
The type of strain gauge are as
1. Wire gauge
a) Unbonded b) Bonded c) Foil type
2. Semiconductor strain gauge
 Unbonded strain gauge
• An unbonded meter strain gauge is shown in fig
• This gauge consist of a wire stretched between two point in an insulating
medium such as air. The wires may be made of various copper, nickel, chrome
nickel or nickel iron alloys.
• In fig the element is connected via a rod to diaphragm which is used for
sensing the pressure. The wire are tensioned to avoid buckling when they
experience the compressive force.
• The unbounded meter wire gauges used almost exclusively in transducer
application employ preloaded resistance wire connected in Wheatstone bridge
as shown in fig.
• At initial preload the strain and resistance of the four arms are nominally
equal with the result the output voltage of the bridge is equal to zero
 Unbonded strain gauge
• Application of pressure produces a small displacement , the displacement
increases a tension in two wire and decreases it in the other two thereby
increase the resistance of two wire which are in tension and decreasing the
resistance of the remaining two wire .
• This causes an unbalance of the bridge producing an output voltage which is
proportional to the input displacement and hence to the applied pressure.
 Bonded strain gauge
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge are used for both stress analysis and for
construction of transducer.
• A resistance wire strain gauge consists of a grid of fine resistance wire of
25μm or less in diameter.
• The wire is looped back and forth on a carrier(base) or mounting plate, which
is usually cemented to the member undergoing stress.
• The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier(base) which may be a thin sheet
of paper, bakelite or teflon.
• A thin sheet of material is covered on top of the wire, so as to prevent it from
any mechanical damage.
• The carrier is bonded with an adhesive material to the specimen which permit
a good transfer of strain from carrier to grid of wires.
 BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
• It consist of following parts:
1. Base (carrier) Materials: several types of base material are used to support
the wires. Impregnated paper is used for room temp. applications.
2. Adhesive: The adhesive acts as bonding materials. Like other bonding
operation, successful strain gauge bonding depends upon careful surface
preparation and use of the correct bonding agent.
In order that the strain be faithfully transferred on to the strain gauge, the bond
has to be formed between the surface to be strained and the plastic backing
material on which the gauge is mounted .
It is important that the adhesive should be suited to this backing and adhesive
material should be quick drying type and also insensitive to moisture
 BONDED METAL FOIL STRAIN GAUGE
• 3. Leads: The leads should be of such materials which have low and
stable resistivity and also a low resistance temperature coefficient
• This class of strain gauge is only an extension of the bonded metal
wire strain gauges.
• The bonded metal wire strain gauge have been completely
superseded(replaced) by bonded metal foil strain gauges.
• Metal foil strain gauge use identical material to wire strain gauge and
are used for most general purpose stress analysis application and for
many transducers
 SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
• Semiconductor gauge are used in application where a high gauge factor is desired. A
high gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance that can be measured
with good accuracy.
• The resistance of the semiconductor gauge change as strain is applied to it. The
semiconductor gauge depends for their action upon the piezo-resistive effect i.e.
change in value of resistance due to change in resistivity.
• Silicon and germanium are used as resistive material for semiconductor gauges.
• A typical strain gauge consists of a strain material and leads that are placed in a
protective box, as shown in Fig. 13.10. Semiconductor wafer or filaments which have
a thickness of 0.05 mm are used. They are bonded on suitable insulating substrates,
such as Teflon.
• Gold leads are generally used for making contacts. These strain gauges can be
fabricated along with an IC Op Amp which can act as a pressure sensitive transducer.
The large gauge factor is accompanied by a thermal rate of change of resistance
approximately 50 times higher than that for resistive gauges. Hence, a
semiconductor strain gauge is as stable as the metallic type, but has a much higher
output.
SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE
Derivation of Expression for
Gauge Factor(K)
The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain is called the gauge factor
(GF). It is the ratio of the change in resistance ΔR/R to the change in the length Δl/l

where

K= gauge factor
Δ R= the change in the initial resistance in Ω’s R = the initial resistance

in Ω (without strain)

Δ l= the change in the length in m

l = the initial length in m (without strain)

Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,

Eq. (13.1) can be written as

where σ is the strain in the lateral direction.

The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross-section is

where
ρ= specific resistance of the conductor

l = length of conductor d= diameter of conductor

When the conductor is stressed, due to the strain, the length of the conductor
increases by Δl and the simultaneously decreases by Δd in its diameter. Hence the
resistance of the conductor can now be written as

Since Δd is small, Δd 2 can be neglected

Now, Poisson’s ratio μ is defined as the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to strain
in the axial direction, that is,

Substituting for Δd/d from Eq. (13.6) in Eq. (13.4), we have

Rationalising, we get
Since Δl is small, we can neglect higher powers of Δl.

Since from Eq. (13.3),

The gauge factor will now be

 Strain Measurement
• If a conductor is stretched or compressed, the resistance of the conductor
changes because of change in the length and cross-sectional area.
• Strain is measured with the help of strain gauges. Resistance of strain
gauges gets changed under strained condition. Since this change in
resistance is very small, of the order of 0.2%, so for its measurement,
extremely sensitive and sophisticated instrumentation is required.
Generally strain gauges employ circuits using wheatstone bridge networks.
• A wheatstone bridge is a circuit which is designed for accurate
measurement of small variations in resistance. It can be used for strain
measurement. It is used for measurement of variation in resistance of
strain gauge.
Measurement of Strain
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
Linear Variable Differential Transformer

• Transformer: AC Input / AC Output

• Differential: Natural Null Point in Middle

• Variable: Movable Core, Fixed Coil

• Linear: Measures Linear Position

 The linear variable-differential transformer(LVDT) is
the most widely used inductive transducer to translate
linear motion into electrical signal.

 Itis also known as Linear Variable-Differential

Transducer.

55
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSDUCER (LVDT)
Principle of LVDT:
LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which
is a nonelectrical energy is converted into an electrical energy.

It is also called as LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

Construction of  LVDT consists of a cylindrical
transformer where it is
LVDT surrounded by one primary
winding in the centre of the
former and the two secondary
windings at the sides.

 The number of turns in both the

secondary windings are equal, but
they are opposite to each other.

 The Primary Winding is

Connected to an ac source
Working of LVDT:
 The Displacement to be
Measured is applied to an
arm attached to the Soft
iron core
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
• The primary winding of LVDT is connected to ac source of voltage
varying from 5V to 25V and of frequency ranging from 50Hz to 20KHz.
• Sine the primary winding is excited by an alternating current source, it
produces an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces ac
voltages in the secondary windings.
• The strength of the signal is dependent on the position of the core in
the coils
• When the core is placed in the center of the coil the output will be
zero
• Moving the coil in either direction causes the signal to increase
• The output signal is proportional to the displacement
Case 1: When the Core is in its normal(NULL)
position.
 Equal Voltages induced in the two secondary windings
 The Output Voltage of secondary winding S1 is Es1 and secondary winding S2 is Es2
 The Differential output Voltage E0=ES1~ES2
 At Normal Position E0=0 ,because The Flux linking with both secondary windings is
equal , hence equal emf are induced in them. (i.e ES1=ES2)
Case 2: When the Core is moved to the left of null position
Case 3: When the Core is moved to the right of null position
Cont…
Cont…

 The Characteristics are

linear from O-A and O-B ,
But after that they become
non-linear.
Advantages of LVDT
Advantages of LVDT

Disadvantages of LVDT
Applications of LVDT:

1. Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to

measure force, weight and pressure, etc..
2. Testing of soil strength
3. PILL making Machine
4. “Brain Probing” medical device
5. Robotic Cleaner
6. Dollar bill thickness in ATM Machine.
7. Hydraulic cylinder Displacement.
Displacement Measurement
 Displacement Measurement
• The displacement measurement can be done by using two differential
transformers(LVDTs) in a closed loop servo system.
• The output terminals of input transformer and a balancing transformer are connected
in series opposition. The algebraic sum of the two voltages is fed to a servo amplifier,
that drives a servo motor.
• When both the transformers are in their normal positions, the sum of their output
voltages is zero and no voltage is delivered to the servo motor.
• When an external displacement input is applied, the core of the input transformer is
moved away from its normal position. Hence an o/p voltage is fed to servo amplifier
and thereby the servo motor rotates.
• The motor shaft is mechanically coupled to the core of the balancing transformer.
• The output of the balancing transformer opposes the output of the input transformer.
Hence the servo motor continues to rotate until the outputs of both the transformers
are equal.
• The position indicator on the motor shaft is calibrated to read the displacement of the
balancing transformer, and hence, indirectly the displacement of the input
transformer.
 Capacitive/Proximity Transducers
• The capacitive transducers are analog, passive, primary transducers for measuring
the displacement, pressure and other physical quantities. It is a passive transducer
that means it requires external power for operation. The capacitive transducer works
on the principle of variable capacitances.
• They are also known as proximity transducers, in the sense that they measure the
nearness of an object without any mechanical coupling between them.
• The capacitive transducer used for measurement of both the linear and angular
displacement. It is extremely sensitive and used for the measurement of very small
distance.
• It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The force or pressure,
which is to be measured is first converted into a displacement, and then the
displacement changes the capacitances of the transducer.
• It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the dielectric constant of the
transducer changes with the pressure.
• The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive transducer.
• The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the volume, density,
weight.
• They are widely used to detect motion, distance, pressure, acceleration, fluid level,
 Capacitive Transducers - Basic Principle Involved
• The principle of operation of Capacitive transducers is based upon the general capacitance equation of
parallel plate capacitor. The capacitance is given as

 r = dielectric constant of the insulating medium ( air  r = 1)

 0 = permittivity of air or free space (8.85 X 10-12F/m)
A = overlapping area in plates m2
d = distance between electrodes or plates
• Capacitive transducer works on the principle that capacitance is varied by variation in any one of
following parameters
(i) Changing the distance between the two parallel plates(d)
(ii) Changing the dielectric constant, permittivity, of the dielectric medium
(iii) Changing the area of the plate.(A)
• The above changes can be caused by physical variable like displacement, force or pressure. The
change in capacitance may also be caused by change in permittivity as in the case of measurement
of levels of liquids or gases.
Capacitive Transducers - Basic Principle Involved
VARIABLE AREA BASED CAPACITOR
TRANSDUCER
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to effective
overlapping area between two plates. A
C 0r
d
Used to measure Linear
displacement
Used to measure angular
displacement
CA
CA
CA
 LINEAR DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT USNG
VARIABLE AREA BASED CAPACITOR
• Consider a capacitive transducer having parallel plates of constant width w.
• In this capacitance is proportional to l (length of the overlapping portion of the plates) and it varies according
to the displacement under measurement. So, any change in displacement causes change in capacitance.
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT USNG VARIABLE AREA BASED
CAPACITOR
ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT MEASUREMENT USNG VARIABLE AREA BASED
CAPACITOR
 Capacitive Transducer- principle involved is by variation
of distance between the plates
• The capacitance of the transducer is inversely proportional to the distance between
the plates. The one plate of the transducer is fixed, and the other is movable. The
displacement which is to be measured links to the movable plates.
• The moving plate moves away from or toward the fixed plate as per displacement
under measurement, the capacitance decreases or increases. This change in
capacitance is measured by an ac bridge circuit or with an oscillator circuit and thus
displacement of the moving plate is measured.
Capacitive Transducer- principle involved is by variation
of distance between the plates
 Translation Displacement Measurement
• Consider an arrangement which employs, cantilever type spring plate capacitor,
for measuring translation displacement. This plate can be displaced towards the
fixed plate of the capacitor by applying force, pressure or displacement to it.
This reduces the distance between the plates thereby increasing the
capacitance, which can be measured by an ac bridge circuit.
 Linear Displacement / Force Measurement
• Consider an arrangement of capacitive transducer, in which the transducer
employs the principle of variation of capacitance with variation of distance
between its plates, for measurement of linear displacement or force.
• A force when applied to diaphragm, which functions as a moving plate of a
simple capacitor, causes the change in the distance between the diaphragm and
the fixed plate. The resultant change in the capacitance can be measured with
an ac bridge or with an oscillator circuit.
 Rotational Displacement Measurement
• The below diagram of capacitive transducer is used to measure rotational
displacement. With the rotation of rotor plates in counter clockwise direction,
the capacitance of the transducer increases. This increase in capacitance can be
measured with an ac bridge or with an oscillatory circuit. Torque can also be
measured with this type of capacitive transducer.
Capacitive Transducer- principle involved is by variation of
permittivity of the dielectric material between the plates
ADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
1) High sensitivity
2) Very small power requirement
3) Good frequency response
4)High input impedance so minimum loading effect
DISADVANTAGES OF CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
1. Proper insulation of metallic parts required
2. Non linear behavior due to edge effect
3. Stray capacitance between metallic wires affect performance
Applications:
Measurement of
i) force, ii) angular and linear displacement ,
iii) moisture, iv) pressure v) water level indicator
Thickness Measurement
 ACTIVE ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
• These transducers do not need any external source of power for their operation. Therefore
they are also called as self generating type transducers.
I. The active transducer are self generating devices which operate under the energy
conversion principle.
II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent electrical output signal e.g.
temperature or strain to electric potential, without any external source of energy being
used.
III. The active electrical transducers are the transducers which develop their output in the
form of electrical voltage or current without any excitation from an electrical source of
electrical transducers.
IV. Some of the active electrical transducers are piezo electric, photoconductive, photo
voltaic, photo emissive transducers.
Piezoelectric Transducer
 Piezo electric Transducer
• Piezo electric transducer is an active electrical transducer that converts applied
pressure into an emf.
• Basic Principle Involved
• A piezo electric material is one in which an electric potential appears across the
opposite faces of the material as a result of dimensional changes, when a
mechanical force is applied to it. This potential is produced by displacement of
charges.
• The effect is reversible i.e., when a potential difference is applied across the
opposite faces of the material, it changes its physical dimensions. This effect is
known as piezo-electric effect.
• Common piezo-electric materials include Rochelle salts, ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate, lithium sulphate, dipotassium tatrate, potassium dihydrogen
phosphate, quartz and ceramics A and B.
 Properties of piezo electric crystals
• stability,
• high output sensitivity to the extreme temperature and humidity
• ability to be formed or machined into any shape.

But none of the materials exhibiting piezoelectric effect

possesses all the properties.
• The figure shows a conventional CONSTRUCTION
piezoelectric transducer with a and
piezoelectric crystal inserted
between a solid base and the WORKING
force summing member.
• If a force is applied on the
pressure port, the same force
will fall on the force summing
member.
• Thus a potential difference will
be generated on the crystal due
to its property. The voltage
produced will be proportional
to the magnitude of the applied
force.
Piezo electric Transducer
 Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers
• High frequency response: They offer very high frequency response
that means the parameter changing at very high speeds can be sensed
easily.
• High transient response: The piezoelectric transducers can detect
the events of microseconds and also give the linear output.
• The piezoelectric transducers are small in size
and have rugged construction.
 Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducers
• Low Output: The output obtained from the piezoelectric
transducers is low, so external electronic circuit has to be
connected.
• High impedance: The piezoelectric crystals have high impedance so
they have to be connected to the amplifier and the auxiliary circuit,
which have the potential to cause errors in measurement. To reduce
these errors amplifiers high input impedance and long cables should be
used.
• Forming into shape: It is very difficult to give the desired shape to the
crystals with sufficient strength.
 Applications of the Piezoelectric Transducers

• 1) The piezoelectric transducers are more useful for the dynamic

measurements, i.e. the parameters that are changing at the fast
rate. This is because the potential developed under the static
conditions is not held by the instrument. Thus piezoelectric
crystals are primarily used measurement of quantities like surface
roughness, and also in accelerometers and vibration pickups.
• 2) For the same reasons they can be used for studying high speed
phenomenon like explosions and blast waves
 Applications of the Piezoelectric Transducers
• 3)Used along with the strain gauges for measurement of force,
stress, vibrations, etc.
• 4) The automotive companies used piezoelectric transducers to detect
detonations in the engine blocks.
• 5)Used in medical treatment, sonochemistry and industrial processing
equipments for monitoring the power.
• 6)Used in Inkjet printers
• 7)Used in smartphone screens.
• 8)Used in lighters.
 Photo Electric transducers
• Uses the light beam as the input source and converts the light beam into an
analogous electrical signal.
• Conversion of light energy into electrical energy.
• When light falls on photosensitive element electric current is generated that is
measured directly or after amplification.
• PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT is the ejection of electrons from a metal or
semiconductor surface when illuminated by light or any radiation of suitable
wavelength.
• Based on their method of operation they are classified into 3 types,
1. Photo conductive transducer
2. Photo voltaic transducer
3. Photo emissive transducer
 Photo conductive transducer
• It is an active electrical transducer in which its resistance varies with incidents
light energy.
Basic Principle Involved:
• In certain semiconductors, light energy striking them can provide sufficient
energy to cause electrons with in the material to break away from their atoms
and thus release charge carriers(free electrons and holes) within the material
and increases the flow of current caused by an applied voltage.
• The increase of current with the increase in light intensity, with the applied
voltage remaining constant, means decrease in resistance with the increase in
light intensity. Hence such semiconductors are called photo conductive cells or
photo resistors or light dependent resistor(LDR), as incident light effectively
varies their resistance.
 Photo conductive transducer
Photo Conductive Materials
• Some of the photo conductive materials are cadmium sulphide, cadmium
selenide or cadmium sulphoselenide. The spectral response of the cadmium
sulphide cell closely matches that of the human eye and the cell is therefore
often used in applications where human eye, and the cell is often used in
applications where human vision is a factor, such as street light control or
automatic iris control for cameras.
• The essential elements of photo conductive cell or photo conductive transducer
are the ceramic substrate, a layer of photo conductive material, metallic
electrodes to connect the device into a circuit and a moisture resistance
enclosure.
Construction of photo conductive cell
Light sensitive material is arranged in the form of long strip, zigzagged across a disc
shaped base with protective sides. For added protection, a glass or plastic cover
may be included. The two ends of the strip are brought out to connecting pins
below the base.
Photo conductive transducer
 Photo conductive transducer
Illumination Characteristics
From the characteristics, when the cell is not illuminated its resistance may be
more than 1,000 kiloohms. This resistance is called dark resistance.
When the cell is illuminated, the resistance may fall to a few hundred ohms
Drawbacks of Photo conductive transducer
The major drawbacks of Photo conductive transducer is that temperature
variations cause substantial variations in resistance for a particular light intensity.
Therefore such a cell is unsuitable for analog applications. Such cells find wide use
in industrial and laboratory control applications.
 Photo conductive cell and relay circuit
• Photo conductive cell used for relay control is shown below. When the cell is
illuminated, its resistance is low and the relay current is at its maximum. When
the cell is dark, its high resistance reduces the current down to a level too low to
energize the relay. Resistance R is included to limit the relay current to the
described level when the resistance of the cell is low.
• Photo conductive cells are used to switch transistors on and off, as illustrated in
below figure. When the cell is dark, the transistor base is biased above its
emitter level and the device is turned on. When the cell is illuminated, the lower
resistance of the cell in series with R biases the transistor base voltage below its
emitter level. Thus the device is turned off.
Photo Voltaic Transducer
Photo Emissive Transducer