ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

(CSF304)

UNIT-3
Knowledge Representation
Knowledge representation in AI
DATA
Raw numbers, letters, symbols, sounds or images with no meaning.

INFORMATION
Information is the set of data that has already been processed, analyzed,
and structured in a meaningful way to become useful.

KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge means the familiarity and awareness of a person,
place, events, ideas, issues, ways of doing things or anything else, which
is gathered through learning, perceiving or discovering.
EXAMPLE
Think of data as any series of random numbers and words that hold no
meaning whatsoever. For example:
4a 61 6e 65 20 44 6f 65 2c 0a 34 20 53 74 72 65 65 74 2c 0a 44 61 6c 6c
61 73 2c 20 54 58 20 39 38 31 37 34 0a

Once the aforementioned data is processed, interpreted, formatted,

and organized, you can see that it is the contact information of Jane
Doe:
Jane Doe,
4 Street,
Dallas, TX 98174
DATA: It is raining.
INFORMATION: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it
started raining.
KNOWLEDGE: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops
substantially the atmospheres is often unlikely to be able to hold the
moisture so it rains.
Knowledge representation and reasoning is the part of AI which is
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to
intelligent behavior of agents.

It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that

a computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the
complex real world problems such as diagnosing a medical condition or
communicating with humans in natural language.

Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but
it also enables an intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and
experiences so that it can behave intelligently like a human.
In AI systems, knowledge can be represented in terms of:
• Events: Anything which happens in real time are considered as the
events
• Objects: All the facts about objects in real world domain
• Facts: Truth about real world
• Performance: Describes how good the knowledge is acquired and it can
be applied to machines
• Meta-knowledge: Knowledge which has already been acquired either by
human brain or machine
Knowledge-base: Central component of an AI agent
Three factors which are put into the machine, which makes it valuable:
Knowledge: The information related to the environment is stored in the
machine.
Reasoning: The ability of the machine to understand the stored
knowledge.
Intelligence: The ability of the machine to make decisions on the basis of
the stored information.
How knowledge and intelligence are related
Knowledge of real-world plays a vital role in intelligence and same for
creating artificial intelligence.
Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behavior
in AI agents.
An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he has some
knowledge or experience about that input.
AI knowledge cycle
AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information
from its environment. It can be visual, audio or another form of sensory
input.
The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by
Perception component.
In the complete cycle, the main components are knowledge
representation and Reasoning. These two components are involved in
showing the intelligence in machines. These two components are
independent with each other but also coupled together.
The planning and execution depend on analysis of Knowledge
representation and reasoning. In this component, the optimal solution of
the current state is found and impact of the same is analyzed.
Types of knowledge
Declarative Knowledge: Refers to facts and information that describe
the world. e.g. Knowing that Paris is the capital of France.
This knowledge is stored in databases and expressed in logical
statements
Procedural knowledge: Knowing how to do something. Includes rules,
strategies and can be applied to a real world task. e.g. Steps to solve a
mathematical problem or the procedure to start a car.
This knowledge is embedded in algorithms
Meta-knowledge: Knowing about pre-defined knowledge.
Understanding which types of knowledge to apply in different
situations. e.g. Knowing when to use a specific algorithm based on the
problem at hand.
Heuristic knowledge: Includes rules of thumb, educated guesses, and
intuitive judgments derived from experience. e.g. Using an educated
guess to approximate a solution when time is limited.
This is used in problem solving and decision making
Structural knowledge: Understanding of how different pieces of
knowledge are organized and related to each other. e.g. Understanding
the hierarchy of concepts in a taxonomy or the relationships between
different entities in a semantic network.
Approaches to knowledge representation
1) Simple relational knowledge
Simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each
fact about a set of the object is set out systematically in columns. Famous
in database systems where the relationship between different entities is
represented.
2) Inheritable knowledge
All data must be stored into a
hierarchy of classes and all
classes must be arranged in a
hierarchical manner.
Shows a relation between
instance and class, and it is
called instance relation. objects
and values are represented in
Boxed nodes. We use Arrows
which point from objects to
their values.
3) Inferential knowledge
Knowledge represented in form of formal logics
E.g. Marcus is a man.
All men are mortal
man (Marcus)
x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4) Procedural knowledge
Uses small programs and codes to describe how to do specific things
If-then rules are used
Knowledge representation techniques
Logical representation
Drawing a conclusion based on various conditions. Involves using
formal logic systems like propositional and predicate logic to represent
knowledge in a structured, precise, and unambiguous way.
It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the
sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax
and semantics.
Syntax: Rules that decide how sentences are formed, which symbols can
be used for knowledge representation.
Semantics: Rules by which sentence can be interpreted in the logic.
Propositional logic: Statements are made by propositions i.e. in terms of
declarative statements which are true or false
 Predicate logic/First-order logic: Represents natural language
statements in a concise way. Gives information about an object and also
expresses relationship between objects. This technique is used to
represent the objects in the form of predicates or quantifiers.
Example of propositional logic
The Sun sets in the West (True proposition)
3+3= 7(False proposition)

Atomic proposition: It consists of a single proposition symbol. These are

the sentences which must be either true or false.
2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.

Compound proposition: Constructed by combining atomic propositions,

using parenthesis and logical connectives.
Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai
Example of first-order logic
First-order logic develops information about the objects in a more easy
way and can also express the relationship between those objects.

Ravi and Ajay are brothers

X is an integer

All men drink coffee

Some boys are gymnasts
All birds fly
Semantic network representation
Used to represent knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This
network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe
the relationship between those objects.
Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and can
also link those objects. Semantic networks are easy to understand and
can be easily extended.
1. Jerry is a cat
2. Jerry is a mammal
3. Jerry is owned by Priya
4. Jerry is white colored
5. All Mammals are animal
1. Ram has a cycle
2. Ram is a boy
3. Cycle has a bell
4. Ram is 12 years old
5. Cycle has two paddles
Frames representation
A frame is a collection of attributes and its associated values which
describe an entity in the real world. It consists of a collection of slots
and slot values.
These slots may be of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values
which are called facets.
Facets are features of frames which enable us to put constraints on the
frames.
 Production rules
if-then statements are used to express knowledge in the form of
conditions and corresponding actions. Three main parts:
The set of production rules
 Working memory
 The recognize-act-cycle
In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition
exists then production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out.
The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be applied to a
problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving
steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.
The working memory contains the description of the current state of
problems-solving and rule can write knowledge to the working memory.
This knowledge match and may fire other rules.
If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production
rules will be fired together, this is called conflict set. In this situation, the
agent needs to select a rule from these sets, and it is called a conflict
resolution.
Example:
IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get into the bus)
IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN action (sit down).
IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get down from the bus).
 Propositional Logic
Simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by propositions.
A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is
a technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical
form.
It is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.
In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic,
and we can use any symbol for representing a proposition, such A, B, C,
P, Q, R, etc.
Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
It consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the
propositional logic.
There are two types of Propositions:
Atomic Propositions and Compound propositions
Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It
consists of a single proposition symbol. These are the sentences which
must be either true or false.
Example:
a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by

combining simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical
connectives.
Example:
a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."
b) “Rohan is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
Logical Connectives
Used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence
logically. We can create compound propositions with the help of logical
connectives
1) Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can
be either Positive literal or negative literal
2) Conjunction: A sentence which has connective such as, P Q is
called a conjunction.
Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be written as,
P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P Q.
3) Disjunction: A sentence which has ˅ connective such as, P ˅ Q is
called a disjunction.
Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",
P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Engineer, so we can write it as P Q.
4) Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication.
Implications are also known as if-then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5) Biconditional: A sentence such as P Q is a Biconditional sentence,
example If I am breathing, then I am alive

P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P Q.

Truth Tables
Truth Tables
Truth Tables
Precedence of connectives
Properties of operators
• Commutativity:
P Q= Q P,
P Q = Q P.
• Associativity:
(P Q) R= P (Q R),
(P Q) R= P (Q R)
• Identity element:
P True = P,
P True= True.
• Distributive:
P (Q R) = (P Q) (P R).
P (Q R) = (P Q) (P R).
• DE Morgan's Law:
¬ (P Q) = (¬P) (¬Q)
¬ (P Q) = (¬ P) (¬Q).
• Double-negation elimination:
¬ (¬P) = P.
 First order logic
First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial
intelligence. It is an extension to propositional logic.
It is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in
a concise way.
It is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
It is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a
more easy way and can also express the relationship between those
objects.
Does not only assume that the world contains facts like propositional logic
but also assumes the following things in the world:
• Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits
• Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent,
n-any relation such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes
between
• It also has two parts: Syntax and Semantics
Atomic Sentences: Formed from a predicate symbol followed by
parenthesis and sequence of terms
Predicate(Term1, Term2, …, TermN)
E.g. Ravi and Ajay are brothers can be represented as: Brothers (Ravi,
Ajay)

Complex Sentences: Formed by combining atomic sentences using

connectives
Quantifiers in FOL
A language element which generates quantification, and quantification
specifies the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
• Universal quantifier: for all, everyone, everything
• Existential quantifier: for some, at least one

Universal quantifier: Specifies that a statement within its range is true

for every instance of that thing
e.g. x man(x) → drink (x, coffee).
There are all x where x is a man who drinks coffee
Existential quantifier: Specifies that a statement within its range is true
for at least one instance of something.
e.g. x: boys(x) intelligent(x)
There are some x where x is a boy who is intelligent

Some more example:

All birds fly
x bird(x) →fly(x).
Some boys play cricket
x: boys(x) → play(x, cricket).