Ethnicity in criminal justice in Pakistan

*Muhammad Salman

**Dr. Tansif Ur Rehman

***Muhammad Sultan

The manuscript has not been previously published elsewhere and is not being considered by any other
joutnal. The authors read and approved the final version of the reprective manuscript
_____________________________________________________________________________________

*Muhammad Salman, Department of Law, Dadabhoy Institute of Higher Education,Pakistan

(msalmank249@gmailcom)(03142331780)

**Dr. Tansif Ur Rehman, Department of Law, Dadabhoy Institute of Higher Education,Pakistan

***Muhammad Sultan , Department of Law/BA.LLB, Dadabhoy Institute of Higher Education,Pakistan

(mmsultan428@gmailcom)(03108514460)

Note: The authors have no conflict of interest to declare

Abstract

This study explores the impact of ethnicity on Pakistan’s criminal justice system, focusing on
how various ethnic groups experience law enforcement, judicial proceedings, and sentencing.
Pakistan’s ethnic diversity, comprising Punjabis, Sindhis, Baloch, Pashtuns, Muhajirs, and
smaller communities, has significant implications for justice administration. The study examines
how ethnic minorities face disproportionate levels of victimization, police profiling, and
sentencing disparities. Factors such as socio-economic status, historical ethnic tensions, and
regional affiliations further complicate their interactions with the criminal justice system. These
disparities manifest through differential access to legal representation, harsher sentencing, and
higher incarceration rates for certain ethnic groups. By delving into these ethnic dynamics, the
research aims to illuminate the systemic inequalities that perpetuate unequal treatment in
Pakistan’s criminal justice system. The study ultimately provides recommendations to address
these disparities and improve justice outcomes for all ethnic groups.

Keywords: ethnicity in Pakistan's criminal justice system, ethnic factors,

 Introduction

Ethnicity plays a pivotal role in shaping individual experiences within the criminal justice
system, influencing interactions with law enforcement, access to legal resources, and judicial
outcomes. Pakistan, a country with a complex and diverse ethnic landscape, faces unique
challenges in ensuring equitable justice for all its citizens. Its population is composed of several
distinct ethnic groups, including Punjabis, Sindhis, Baloch, Pashtuns, and Muhajirs, each with
their own cultural, linguistic, and historical backgrounds. These ethnic groups often experience
different treatment within the legal system, leading to significant disparities in arrest rates, legal
representation, and sentencing outcomes.

The relationship between ethnicity and criminal justice in Pakistan is deeply rooted in the
country’s historical and socio-political context. Ethnic divisions have historically played a role in
shaping Pakistan’s political landscape, with regional and ethnic tensions sometimes leading to
conflict. This history of tension influences how different ethnic groups are perceived by law
enforcement and the judiciary. For instance, ethnic profiling by police is a recurring issue in
Pakistan, where certain groups, such as the Baloch and Pashtuns, are often viewed with suspicion
due to political unrest in their regions. This results in higher arrest rates, increased surveillance,
and harsher legal consequences for these communities.

Law enforcement practices in Pakistan are also influenced by socio-economic factors, which are
often intertwined with ethnicity. Many ethnic minorities in Pakistan are economically
disadvantaged, leading to a greater likelihood of engagement with the criminal justice system.
For example, impoverished communities, particularly those from ethnic minority backgrounds,
often face limited access to education and employment opportunities, increasing their
vulnerability to criminal activities. The criminal justice system, in turn, tends to treat these
individuals more harshly, reflecting broader societal biases against certain ethnic groups.

Access to justice is another critical area where ethnic disparities are evident. Ethnic minorities in
Pakistan, particularly those from lower socio-economic backgrounds, often face challenges in
securing effective legal representation. This is largely due to the high costs of private legal
counsel, which many ethnic minority individuals cannot afford. As a result, they are more likely
to rely on public defenders, who are often overburdened and under-resourced. This imbalance in
legal representation leads to higher conviction rates and longer sentences for ethnic minority
defendants.

Judicial bias is also a significant issue in Pakistan’s criminal justice system, where ethnic
background can influence the severity of sentencing. Research indicates that individuals from
certain ethnic groups, such as Muhajirs and Sindhis, are more likely to receive harsher sentences
than their Punjabi counterparts for similar offenses. This suggests that the judiciary, consciously
or unconsciously, may hold biases against certain ethnic communities, further exacerbating the
inequalities within the system.

Overall, the intersection of ethnicity and criminal justice in Pakistan reveals systemic disparities
that disproportionately affect ethnic minority groups. These disparities are perpetuated by factors
such as ethnic profiling, socio-economic disadvantages, and unequal access to legal resources.
By exploring these issues, this research aims to shed light on the underlying factors contributing
to ethnic inequalities in Pakistan’s criminal justice system, offering recommendations for reform
to ensure a fairer and more inclusive system for all.

Research Justification

The role of ethnicity in Pakistan’s criminal justice system is critical to understanding the broader
issues of fairness and equality in law enforcement and judicial practices. Given the country’s
ethnic diversity, it is essential to examine how different ethnic groups experience criminal justice
processes, from interactions with law enforcement to judicial outcomes. The disparities faced by
ethnic minorities, including Baloch, Pashtuns, Muhajirs, and others, highlight systemic issues
within the justice system that need to be addressed.

Understanding these ethnic disparities is crucial for several reasons. First, it allows for a more
nuanced analysis of how socio-economic and political factors intersect with ethnicity to create
unequal justice outcomes. Second, addressing these disparities is vital for promoting social
cohesion in a country where ethnic tensions have historically fueled conflict. Lastly, by
exploring the ethnic dimensions of criminal justice, this research can offer insights into
developing policies that promote more equitable treatment of all citizens, regardless of their
ethnic background.

This research aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the role ethnicity plays in Pakistan’s
criminal justice system, offering valuable insights for policymakers, law enforcement agencies,
and the judiciary to create a more just and inclusive system for all ethnic groups.

Research Objectives

1) To find out how ethnicity affects arrest rates and police actions: This goal is to see if
people from certain ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested or treated unfairly by the police.
It will look at real-life examples and numbers to find patterns of discrimination.

2) To understand how ethnicity impacts access to legal help and fair treatment: This
objective focuses on how people from different ethnic backgrounds might face challenges in
getting quality legal support and fair treatment in the courts.

3) To explore how ethnicity affects sentencing decisions: This aim is to see if people from
different ethnic groups receive different punishments for the same crimes. It will check if there
are any unfair biases in sentencing.
4) To see how ethnicity interacts with other factors (like income, gender, religion): This
objective wants to understand how being from a particular ethnic group, along with other factors,
can lead to unique challenges in the justice system.

5) To suggest ways to reduce ethnic inequalities in the criminal justice system: The final
goal is to provide ideas and strategies for improving fairness in the system, so everyone is treated
more equally.

Research Methodology

This study employed a systematic review methodology, with research objectives established
accordingly. A comprehensive literature review was conducted (Komba & Lwoga, 2020).
Research findings were categorized based on their content (Hiver et al., 2021; Petticrew &
Roberts, 2006), and classified information was incorporated into the study by organizing it into
headings (Gan et al., 2021; Pawson et al., 2005). The evaluation of classified information and
titles formed the basis of the study (Page, 2021; Rahi, 2017), ensuring the integrity of the
research subject and its contents (Egger et al., 2022; Victor, 2008).

Literature Review

The issue of ethnicity in criminal justice systems worldwide has long been a subject of concern,
and Pakistan is no exception. In Pakistan, ethnicity significantly shapes how individuals
experience law enforcement and judicial processes. The country’s complex ethnic landscape,
comprising Punjabis, Sindhis, Baloch, Pashtuns, Muhajirs, and other smaller groups, leads to
disparities in how justice is administered. This section reviews the existing literature on the
impact of ethnicity on various aspects of Pakistan’s criminal justice system, including law
enforcement practices, access to legal representation, and sentencing disparities.

1) Law Enforcement and Ethnic Profiling

Ethnic profiling by law enforcement is a critical issue in Pakistan. Studies show that ethnic
minorities, particularly the Baloch and Pashtuns, are often targeted by police due to their
perceived involvement in criminal or separatist activities. The political unrest in Balochistan and
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has fueled a perception among law enforcement agencies that individuals
from these regions are more likely to engage in criminal behavior. As a result, Baloch and
Pashtun individuals are disproportionately subjected to stops, searches, and arrests. This profiling
reinforces negative stereotypes and contributes to a cycle of mistrust between law enforcement
and ethnic minority communities. As American sociologist William Chambliss stated, "The law
is not a set of rules; it is a social construct that reflects the interests and biases of those in power"
(Chambliss, 1964).
In addition to profiling, there is evidence of increased surveillance of ethnic minority
communities, particularly in regions where political tensions are high. For example, the Baloch
community has faced heightened scrutiny due to the insurgency in Balochistan. Law
enforcement agencies often justify these actions as necessary for national security, but they
disproportionately affect innocent individuals from these ethnic groups, contributing to a sense
of alienation and victimization.

2) Access to Legal Representation

One of the most significant disparities faced by ethnic minorities in Pakistan’s criminal justice
system is access to legal representation. Many ethnic minority groups, particularly those from
lower socio-economic backgrounds, struggle to afford private legal counsel. This financial
barrier often forces them to rely on public defenders, who are frequently overburdened and lack
the resources to provide effective representation. The result is that ethnic minority defendants are
more likely to be convicted and receive harsher sentences compared to their wealthier
counterparts.

Research suggests that individuals from ethnic minority groups are less likely to have the
resources to mount a strong legal defense, leading to a higher likelihood of wrongful convictions
or plea bargains that result in longer sentences. This imbalance in access to legal resources
exacerbates the existing disparities in the criminal justice system, particularly for groups like the
Baloch, Pashtuns, and Sindhis.

3) Sentencing Disparities

Ethnic bias in sentencing is another area where disparities are evident. Studies have shown that
individuals from certain ethnic groups, such as Muhajirs and Sindhis, are more likely to receive
harsher sentences than their Punjabi counterparts, even when the offenses and circumstances are
similar. This suggests that judicial bias, whether conscious or unconscious, plays a role in the
unequal treatment of ethnic minorities in Pakistan’s courts.

Sentencing disparities are often compounded by the socio-economic status of the defendant.
Ethnic minorities, who are more likely to come from impoverished backgrounds, face longer
prison terms and fewer opportunities for parole or probation. This overrepresentation of ethnic
minorities in the prison system perpetuates a cycle of disadvantage, as these individuals often
struggle to reintegrate into society after serving their sentences.

4) Historical and Political Context

The historical and political context of Pakistan further complicates the relationship between
ethnicity and the criminal justice system. Ethnic tensions have long been a part of Pakistan’s
political landscape, with different groups vying for power and recognition. These tensions have
often spilled over into the criminal justice system, where certain ethnic groups are perceived as
more prone to criminal behavior due to their political affiliations or regional conflicts.
For example, the insurgency in Balochistan has led to a heightened focus on the Baloch
community by law enforcement agencies. Similarly, the Pashtun community, due to its proximity
to the Afghan border and the presence of militant groups in the region, is often subjected to
increased scrutiny and harsher legal consequences. These historical and political factors
contribute to the systemic inequalities that ethnic minorities face within Pakistan’s criminal
justice system.

5) Socio-Economic Factors

Socio-economic factors also play a critical role in shaping ethnic disparities within the criminal
justice system. Ethnic minorities in Pakistan are often economically disadvantaged, with limited
access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. This lack of resources increases
their likelihood of coming into contact with the criminal justice system, either as victims or
offenders. Moreover, once they enter the system, their socio-economic status limits their ability
to secure adequate legal representation, leading to poorer outcomes in terms of sentencing and
incarceration.

Studies have shown that ethnic minorities, particularly those from rural or impoverished areas,
are more likely to be arrested and charged with crimes related to poverty, such as theft or drug
offenses. Chambliss, W. J. (1964). The Saints and the Roughnecks.

Historical Background of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice in Pakistan

Pakistans diverse ethnic landscape has shaped its criminal justice system since its inception.
The country was founded on the principles of Islam and democracy, yet ethnic identities have
played a crucial role in shaping its socio-political fabric. The British colonial legal system
introduced frameworks that favored certain ethnic groups, creating deep-rooted biases that
persist today. Post-independence, the partition led to mass migrations, inflaming ethnic tensions.

As political power has shifted, various ethnic groups have felt marginalized. For instance, Baloch
and Pashtun communities have historically faced discrimination in law enforcement and judicial
processes. Laws such as the Anti-Terrorism Act and the Frontier Crimes Regulation have
disproportionately affected these groups, exacerbating their disenfranchisement. The interplay of
ethnicity and justice is further complicated by political patronage and corruption within law
enforcement agencies, which often operate with impunity. Understanding this historical context
is essential for analyzing contemporary challenges faced by ethnic minorities in the criminal
justice system.
 Leading Laws in Pakistan Related to Ethnicity in Criminal Justice

1. Pakistan Penal Code (PPC) 1860

The PPC is the primary legal framework defining various criminal offenses and their penalties in
Pakistan. It encompasses a broad range of crimes but does not specifically address ethnic issues.
Its application can reflect ethnic biases, impacting how laws are enforced across different
communities.

2. Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) 1898

The CrPC outlines the procedural aspects of the criminal justice system, including arrest, trial,
and appeals. It is designed to ensure due process but can be applied unevenly, particularly
affecting ethnic minorities who may face discrimination in legal proceedings.

3. Anti-Terrorism Act (ATA) 1997

The ATA was enacted to address terrorism and extremism, granting law enforcement broad
powers to combat perceived threats. However, its application has raised concerns about ethnic
profiling, particularly against minority groups in conflict-affected areas, leading to potential
human rights violations.

4. Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR) 1901

The FCR governs criminal law in Pakistan's tribal areas, allowing for collective punishment and
limiting legal protections. It perpetuates tribal and ethnic injustices, impacting the rights of
specific groups, particularly Pashtuns, by subjecting them to a different legal framework.

5. National Action Plan (NAP) 2014

The NAP is a comprehensive strategy aimed at combating terrorism and promoting national
unity. Its implementation often results in increased scrutiny of ethnic minorities, leading to
tensions and exacerbating societal divisions in regions with diverse ethnic populations.

6. Anti-Discrimination Laws

These laws aim to prevent discrimination based on race, caste, and gender. While they provide a
framework for addressing inequality, their effectiveness depends on enforcement, and ethnic
minorities often face barriers in accessing justice and protections under these laws.

7. Provincial Laws
Provincial laws vary across Pakistan and can impact the rights and representation of ethnic
minorities. Each province has unique regulations that address local governance, cultural rights,
and social protections, reflecting the diverse needs of their populations.

8. The Constitution of Pakistan

The Constitution is the supreme legal document that guarantees fundamental rights and equality
for all citizens. Key articles focus on prohibiting discrimination and promoting the cultural and
linguistic rights of ethnic minorities, though practical enforcement remains a challenge and
Opportunities for Ethnicity in Criminal Justice in Pakistan

Challenges and opportunities Pakistan faces related to ethnicity.

Challenges: Ethnic minorities often experience systemic bias and discrimination, which leads to
unequal treatment under the law. Law enforcement agencies frequently exhibit prejudiced
behavior, influenced by historical grievances and socio-political affiliations. This can result in
wrongful arrests, excessive use of force, and inadequate legal representation for ethnic
minorities. Moreover, the lack of trust in the justice system fosters a culture of impunity, where
perpetrators of ethnic violence escape accountability.

Socio-economic disparities further exacerbate these issues, as marginalized ethnic groups often
lack access to legal resources and representation. Cultural misunderstandings between law
enforcement and minority communities contribute to strained relations and a lack of cooperation
with police.

Opportunities: Despite these challenges, there are opportunities for reform. The growing
awareness of human rights issues and ethnic disparities within Pakistan has led to increased
advocacy for legal reforms. Civil society organizations are actively working to promote the
rights of ethnic minorities, pushing for more inclusive policies and practices.

Furthermore, international pressure and engagement can prompt the government to take action
against ethnic discrimination. The introduction of community policing models could foster trust
between law enforcement and ethnic minorities, facilitating better cooperation and
understanding. By focusing on education, awareness, and inclusivity in the legal framework,
Pakistan can move towards a more equitable criminal justice system that respects and protects
the rights of all ethnic groups.
 Discussion

The findings underscore that ethnicity is a critical determinant in how individuals experience the
criminal justice system in Pakistan. Ethnic minorities often face heightened scrutiny from law
enforcement, resulting in disproportionate arrest and prosecution rates. Groups such as the
Baloch and Pashtuns are frequently subjected to ethnic profiling, which not only erodes
community trust in law enforcement but also perpetuates stereotypes and biases. Moreover, the
treatment of these groups in the judicial process reveals a significant disparity in legal outcomes,
with evidence suggesting that ethnic background influences sentencing and judicial decisions.

This research highlights the multifaceted nature of ethnic disparities, intersecting with socio-
economic factors that further disadvantage these communities. Individuals from marginalized
ethnic backgrounds often confront additional barriers, such as limited access to quality legal
representation and resources, exacerbating their vulnerability within the justice system. The
prevailing socio-economic challenges faced by ethnic minorities in Pakistan must be addressed
as part of a broader reform strategy.

Consequently, understanding the dynamics of ethnicity in criminal justice necessitates a

comprehensive approach that involves not only legal reform but also social policy changes aimed
at addressing the root causes of inequality. Through targeted initiatives and community
engagement, it is possible to create a more equitable criminal justice environment that respects
the rights and dignity of all individuals, irrespective of their ethnic backgrounds.

Conclusion

The criminal justice system in Pakistan reflects significant ethnic disparities that manifest in
various forms, impacting how individuals from different backgrounds experience law
enforcement and judicial processes. Ethnic minorities, including the Baloch, Pashtuns, and
Muhajirs, often face systemic biases, resulting in unequal treatment throughout the justice
system. These disparities are not merely statistical but have profound implications for the lives of
individuals and communities, perpetuating cycles of disadvantage and mistrust.

Addressing these inequalities is paramount to achieving a fair and just society. Policy reforms
aimed at eliminating ethnic biases must be prioritized, alongside initiatives that enhance
community-police relations and improve access to legal representation for marginalized groups.
A holistic approach that considers the intersectionality of ethnicity with other identity factors,
such as gender and socio-economic status, will be crucial in fostering an inclusive criminal
justice system.

Moreover, the need for robust data collection mechanisms to monitor and assess the treatment of
ethnic minorities in the justice system cannot be overstated. By committing to reforms that
prioritize equity and inclusivity, Pakistan can work towards dismantling systemic barriers and
building a criminal justice system that serves all citizens fairly, fostering a sense of justice and
belonging for every community member.
 Recommendations

Implement Community Policing: Foster relationships between law enforcement and ethnic
communities to build trust and cooperation.
Review and Reform Laws: Analyze existing laws for biases and amend them to ensure fairness
for all ethnic groups.
Enhance Legal Representation: Increase access to legal aid for marginalized ethnic groups to
ensure fair trials.
Cultural Sensitivity Training: Provide training for law enforcement on cultural competency to
improve interactions with ethnic minorities.
Data Collection: Establish a robust data collection system to monitor ethnic disparities in the
criminal justice system.
Advocacy for Rights: Strengthen the role of civil society organizations in advocating for the
rights of ethnic minorities.
Public Awareness Campaigns: Launch campaigns to educate the public about ethnic diversity
and promote tolerance.
Strengthen Human Rights Institutions: Empower institutions that oversee human rights
violations, ensuring accountability in law enforcement.
Policy Dialogues: Facilitate dialogues between government, law enforcement, and ethnic
communities to address grievances and develop solutions.
International Collaboration: Engage with international organizations for best practices and
support in addressing ethnic disparities within the justice system.

Research Limitations

One of the main limitations of this study is the lack of detailed and reliable data on ethnicity
and criminal justice in Pakistan. This makes it challenging to draw comprehensive conclusions
about the extent of discrimination. Additionally, the research provided on internet heavily relies
on comparisons with the UK, which may not fully capture the unique social, cultural, and legal
differences in Pakistan. Lastly, the study's findings are based on existing literature and case
studies, which may not reflect recent changes or improvements in the criminal justice system.

This analysis is limited by the availability and granularity of data, as some statistics may not
fully capture the complexities of ethnic disparities. The reliance on aggregate data can obscure
individual experiences and intersectional factors such as gender, socio-economic status, and
geographical location. Additionally, the focus on indictable offences may exclude a broader
understanding of how ethnic disparities manifest in less serious offences. Future research should
aim for more qualitative data to enrich the quantitative findings and provide deeper insights into
the lived experiences of affected individuals.

Research Implications

This research is subject to several limitations. Firstly, the reliance on existing literature and
available data may not fully capture the complexities of ethnicity and criminal justice in
Pakistan. The absence of comprehensive statistical data on ethnic interactions within the justice
system can hinder a complete understanding of the extent of disparities. Furthermore, regional
variations in Pakistan’s ethnic composition and the local criminal justice landscape may not be
adequately represented in the study. Another limitation is the potential biases in the qualitative
data drawn from various studies, which may not uniformly reflect the experiences of all ethnic
communities. Additionally, the dynamic nature of the socio-political context in Pakistan means
that findings may quickly become outdated as new policies and societal changes emerge. Lastly,
the qualitative insights may not lend themselves to generalization across all ethnic groups, as
experiences can vary widely based on numerous factors, including location and socio-economic
status.

Future Research Directions

Future research should focus on longitudinal studies that track the experiences of ethnic
minorities within the criminal justice system over time. This approach could reveal trends and
shifts in how ethnic groups interact with law enforcement and judicial processes. Researchers
should also consider employing mixed-methods approaches that combine quantitative data with
qualitative interviews to capture the nuanced experiences of individuals from various ethnic
backgrounds.

Additionally, investigations into the specific barriers to accessing legal representation faced by
ethnic minorities would provide valuable insights for policy development. Exploring the impact
of socio-economic factors on the criminal justice experiences of these communities can also shed
light on how broader societal issues contribute to disparities.

Lastly, studies that evaluate the effectiveness of implemented reforms and community
engagement initiatives aimed at improving ethnic relations within the justice system will be
crucial. Such evaluations can inform future policy directions and ensure that efforts to enhance
equity are evidence-based and effective. By addressing these areas, future research can
contribute to a deeper understanding of the interplay between ethnicity and the criminal justice
system in Pakistan, ultimately guiding efforts toward achieving justice and equality for all
citizens.

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