KALVI INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL – MADURAI

(Affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi)

(Affiliation Number: 1930605)

(2023-2024)

BIOLOGY PROJECT REPORT ON

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON HUMAN IMMUNITY

SUBMITTED BY

J.HAATHIM JAHEER

CLASS-XII

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF

MS.DIVYA BARATHI

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 CONTENTS

S. No Title Page no

1. INTRODUCTION 5

2. TYPES OF IMMUNITY 6

3. INNATE IMMUNITY 7

4. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY 8

5. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY 10

6. ALLERGIES 11

7. AUTOIMMUNITY 12

8. IMMUNE SYSTEM IN BODY 14

9. CONCLUSION 15

10 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT 16

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY 17

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 CERTIFICATE

This project entitled “COMPARTIVE STUDY ON HUMAN IMMUNITY”, is the investigatory

project work in BIOLOGY (044), successfully completed by Master HAATHIM JAHEER.J,

student of class-XII, KALVI INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL, MADURAI with Register

Number _____________________ under the guidance of Ms DIVYA BARATHI. S (PGT

BIOLOGY), for the partial fulfillment of requirements for the project completion in pursuance of

CBSE HIGHER SECONDARY EXAM during the academic year 2023-24.

INTERNAL EXAMINER PRINCIPAL SIGN EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to praise the almighty for rendering a good help and strength in successfully
completing this investigatory project.

I also wish to thank my parents for supporting me in all means for the completion of this project.

I wish to dedicate my sincere thanks to my school and my principal who has supported me with
all the facilities for the successful completion of this project.

I dedicate my heartfelt thanks and gratitude to my biology teacher for her complete guidance and
support in completing my project.

I would also like to extend my gratitude towards all teaching and non-teaching staff of KALVI
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOL, MADURAI and towards my friends who have supported
me a lot in the completion of this project.

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 INTRODUCTION

Immunity is the capability of multi-cellular organisms to resist harmful

microorganisms. Immunity involves both specific and nonspecific components.
The non specific components act as barriers or eliminators of a wide range of
pathogens irrespective of their antigenic make-up. Other components of the
immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and can
generate pathogen-specific immunity.
Immunity is a complex biological system that can recognize and tolerate whatever
belongs to the self, and to recognize and reject what is foreign (non-self) the
immune system protects the body from possibly harmful substances by recognizing
and responding to antigens. Antigens are substances (usually proteins) on the
surface of cells, viruses, fungi, or bacteria. Non living substances such as toxins,
chemicals, drugs, and foreign particles (such as a splinter) canals of antigens. The
immune system recognizes and destroys, or tries to destroy, substances that contain
antigens.
Your body's cells have proteins that are antigens. These include a group of antigens
called HLA antigens. Your immune system learns to see these antigens as normal
and usually does not react against them

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 TYPES OF IMMUNITY

The immune system has innate and adaptive components. Innate immunity is
present in all metazoans, while adaptive immunity only occurs in vertebrates.

Innate component of the immunity system involves the recognition of certain

foreign (non-self) molecules to generate one of two types of innate immune
responses: inflammatory responses and phagocytosis. The adaptive component, on
the other hand, involves more advanced lymphatic cells that can distinguish
between specific "non-self" substances in the presence of “self". There action of
foreign substances is etymologically described as inflammation while then on-
reaction to self substances is described as immunity. The two components of the
immune system create a dynamic biological environment where "health "can be
seen as a physical state where the self is immunologically spared, and what is
foreign is inflammatorily and immunologically eliminated. "Disease" can arise
when what is foreign cannot be eliminated.

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 INNATE IMMUNITY

Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the defense system with which you were born.
It protects you against all antigens. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep
harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers form the first line of
defense in the immune response. Examples of innate immunity include:

 Cough reflex
 Enzymes in tears and skin oils

 Mucus, which traps bacteria and small particles

 Skin

 Stomach acid

 Innate immunity also comes in a protein chemical form, called innate humoral
immunity. Examples include the body's complement system and substances called
interferon and interleukin-1 (which causes fever).

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If an antigen gets past these barriers, it is attacked and destroyed by other parts of
the immune system.

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

The adaptive immune system, also known as the acquired immune system, is a sub
system of the immune system that is composed of specialized, systemic cells and
processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth. The acquired immune
system is one of the two main immunity strategies found invertebrates.

Like the innate system, the adaptive immune system includes both humoral
immunity components and cell-mediated immunity components and destroys

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invading pathogens. Unlike the innate immune system, which is pre-programmed
to react to common broad categories of pathogen, the adaptive immune system is
highly specific to each particular pathogen the body has encountered.

Adaptive immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a

specific pathogen, and leads to an enhanced response to fourteen counters with that
pathogen. Antibodies are a critical part of the adaptive immune system. Adaptive
immunity can provide long-lasting protection, sometimes for the person's entire life
time. For example, someone who recovers from measles is now protected against
measles for their life time; in other cases it does not provide life time protection, as
with chickenpox or SARS-CoV-2.

B cells:-

After formation and maturation in the bone marrow (hence the name “B cell”), the
naive B cells move into the lymphatic system to circulate throughout the body. In
the lymphatic system, naive B cells encounter an antigen, which starts the
maturation process for the B cell. B cells each have one of millions of distinctive
surface antigen-specific receptors that are inherent to the organism’s DNA. For
example, naive B cells express antibodies on their cell surface, which can also be
called membrane-bound antibodies.

T cells:-

Once formed in the bone marrow, T progenitor cells migrate to the thymus (hence
the name “T cell”) to mature and become T cells. While in the thymus, the
developing T cells start to express T cell receptors (TCRs) and other receptors
called CD4 and CD8 receptors. All T cells express T cell receptors, and either CD4
or CD8, not both. So, some T cells will express CD4, and others will express CD8.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY:-

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A fetus naturally acquires passive immunity from its mother during pregnancy.
Maternal passive immunity is antibody-mediated immunity. The mother’s
antibodies (MatAb) are passed through the placenta to the fetus by
an FcRn receptor on placental cells. This occurs around the third month
of gestation. IgG is the only antibody isotype that can pass through the placenta.
Passive immunity is also provided through the transfer of IgA antibodies found
in breast milk Artificially acquired passive immunity is a short-term immunization
induced by the transfer of antibodies, which can be administered in several
forms ;as human or animal blood plasma, as pooled human immune globulin for
intravenous (IVIG) or intramuscular (IG)use, and in the form of mono clonal
antibodies (MAb). Passive transfer is used prophylactically in the case
of immunodeficiency diseases, such as hypo gamma globulinemia. It is also used
in the treatment of several types of acute infection, and to treat poisoning.

When B cells and T cells are activated by a pathogen, memory B-cells and T- cells
develop, and the primary immune response results. Throughout the life time of an
animal, these memory cells will" remember" each specific pathogen encountered,
and can mount a strong secondary response if the pathogen is detected again. The
primary and secondary responses were first described in 1921 by English
immunologist Alexander Glenny although the mechanism involved was not
discovered until later. This type of immunity is both active and adaptive because
the body's immune system prepares itself for future challenges.

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 ALLERGIES

Allergies are your body's reaction to a normally harmless substance such as pollen,
molds, animal dander, latex, certain foods and insect stings. Allergy symptoms
range from mild–rash or hives, itchiness, runny nose, watery/red eyes–to life-
threatening. An allergy is an immune system response to a foreign substance that’s
not typically harmful to your body. These foreign substances are called allergens.
They can include certain foods, pollen, or pet dander. Your immune system’s job is
to keep you healthy by fighting harmful pathogens. It does this by attacking
anything it thinks could put your body in danger. Depending on the allergen, this
response may involve inflammation, sneezing, or a host of other symptoms.

Your immune system normally adjusts to your environment. For example, when
your body encounters something like pet dander, it should realize it’s harmless. In
people with dander allergies, the immune system perceives it as an outside invader
threatening the body and attacks it. Research has shown that people with atopic
diseases have 25% lower odds of contracting COVID. For people with atopic
disease and asthma, the risk is 38% lower compared to people without these
conditions. A separate study showed that people with food allergies were 50% less
likely to become infected with COVID. These frequent or prolonged allergic
reactions can also weaken our immune system.

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 AUTOIMMUNITY

Autoimmunity is the system of immune responses of an organism against its own

healthy cells, tissues and other body normal constituents. Any disease resulting
from this type of immune response is termed an" auto immune disease"

An auto immune disease is a condition in which your immune system mistakenly

attacks your body.

The immune system normally guards against germs like bacteria and viruses.
When it senses these foreign invaders, it sends out an army of fighter cells to attack
them.

Normally, the immune system can tell the difference between foreign cells and
your own cells.

In an autoimmune disease, the immune system mistakes part of your body, like
your joints or skin, as foreign. It releases proteins called auto antibodies that attack
healthy cells.

Autoimmunity is the presence of antibodies (which are made by B

lymphocytes)and T lymphocytes directed against normal components of a

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person(auto antigens). These components are called auto antigens or self-antigens
and typically consist of proteins (or proteins complexes to nucleic acids). The
antibodies and T lymphocytes that recognize auto antigens are called" auto-
antibodies "and" auto-reactive”

T cells Sometimes the immune system makes a mistake and attacks the body's own
tissues or organs. This is called autoimmunity. One example of an autoimmune
disease is type1diabetes, in which the immune system destroys the cells in the
pancreas that produce insulin.

IMMUNE SYSTEM IN THE BODY

The main parts of the immune system are:

 White blood cells.

 Antibodies.
 Complement system.

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  Lymphatic system.
 Spleen.
 Bone marrow.
 Thymus.

Antibodies help the body to fight microbes or the toxins (poisons) they produce.
The complement system is made up of proteins whose actions complement the
work done by antibodies. The lymphatic system is a network of delicate tubes
throughout the body. The main roles of the lymphatic system are to:

 manage the fluid levels in the body

 react to bacteria
 deal with cancer cells
 deal with cell products that otherwise would result in disease or disorders
 Absorb some of the fats in our diet from the intestine.

The spleen is a blood-filtering organ that removes microbes and destroys old or
damaged red blood cells. Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside your
bones. It produces the red blood cells our bodies need to carry oxygen, the white
blood cells we use to fight infection, and the platelets we need to help our blood
clot. The thymus filters and monitors your blood content. It produces the white
blood cells called T-lymphocytes.

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 CONCLUSION:

The immune system responds to foreign pathogens and cancer cells by activating

specific and non specific immune responses. The goal of immune therapy is to

enhance these responses to control the growth of cancer cells. Knowledge of the

influence of stress on immune and cytokine response is evolving.

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 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

 I would like to continue my project further study about consanguineous

parent’s vs non consanguineous immunity level.

 By taking survey with both types of parents to in identify their immunity

level.

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 Bibliography

 https://www.slideshare.net/rahulchamp2345/biology-project-15986759
 https://www.scribd.com/doc/298014264/Biology-project-on-Immunity-
for-class-12th
 https://byjus.com/biology/immunity/
 https://prezi.com/xiemg864i0hd/biology-project-the-immune-system/
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1361287/
 https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/
acquired-immunity
 https://www.healthline.com/health/acquired-immunity
 https://www.msdmanuals.com/en-in/home/immune-disorders/biology-of-
the-immune-system/acquired-immunity
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant-induced_systemic_resistance.

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Thank You

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