Time is precious, but we do not know yet how precious it really is.

We will only know when we are no longer able to take adva

Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze it. Graphs are also useful in
g They can be used to
discuss an issue, reinforce a critical point, or summarize a data set. They can also be used to
discover a trend or pattern in a situation over a period of time.
The commonly used graphs in research are; the pie chart, bar chart, histogram, frequency
polygon and the cumulative frequency curve (Ogive).

2.2.1 Pie Chart

vide a circle into sectors proportional in angle to the relative
size of the quantities in the category being represented.
How to Draw
(i) Add up the given quantities and let s be the sum of the values
(ii) For each quantity x, calculate the representative angle and percentage as xs (3600 ) and
x
s (100%) respectively
(iii)Draw a circle and divide it into sectors using the angles calculated in step ii above
(iv) Label the sector by the group represented and indicate the corresponding percentage.

Example This frequency distribution shows the number of pounds of each snack food eaten
during the Super Bowl. Construct a pie graph for the data.
Snack Potato chips Tortilla chips Pretzels Popcorn Snack nuts
Pounds (in millions) 11.2 8.2 4.3 3.8 2.5
Solution
Snack Potato chips Tortilla chips Pretzels Popcorn Snack nuts Total
Pounds (in millions) 11.2 8.2 4.3 3.8 2.5 30.0
Representative Angle 134 98 52 46 30 360
Representative %age 37.3 27.3 14.3 12.7 8.3 99.9
See figure below

2.2.2 Bar chart

A bar chart consists of a set of equal spaced rectangles whose heights are proportional to the
frequency of the category /item being considered. The X axis in a bar chart can represent the
number of categories.
Note: Bars are of uniform width and there is equal spacing between the bars.

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Time is precious, but we do not know yet how precious it really is. We will only know when we are no longer able to take adva

Example
A sample of 250 students was asked to indicate their favourite TV channels and their
responses were as follows.
TV station KBC NTV CITIZEN KTN FAMILY
No. of viewers 28 52 92 63 15
Draw a bar chart to represent this information. See figure below

2.23 Pareto Charts

It consist of a set of continuous rectangles where the variable displayed on the horizontal axis
is qualitative or categorical and the frequencies are displayed by the heights of vertical bars,
which are arranged in order from highest to lowest. A Pareto chart is used to represent a
frequency distribution for a categorical variable,
Points to note when drawing a Pareto Chart
i) Make the bars the same width.
ii) Arrange the data from largest to smallest according to frequency.
iii) Make the units that are used for the frequency equal in size.
When you analyze a Pareto chart, make comparisons by looking at the heights of the bars.

Example The table shown here is the average cost per mile for passenger vehicles on state
turnpikes. Construct and analyze a Pareto chart for the data.
State Indiana Oklahoma Florida Maine Pennsylvania
Number 2.9 4.3 6.0 3.8 5.8
Solution
Arrange the data from the largest to smallest according to frequency.
State Florida Pennsylvania Oklahoma Maine Indiana
Number 6.0 5.8 4.3 3.8 2.9
Draw and label the x and y axes and then the bars corresponding to the frequencies. The Pareto chart
shows that Florida has the highest cost per mile. The cost is more than twice as high as the cost for Indiana.

2.2.4 Histogram
It consists of a set of continuous rectangles such that the areas of the rectangles are
proportional to the frequency. For ungrouped data, the heights of each bar is proportional to

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Time is precious, but we do not know yet how precious it really is. We will only know when we are no longer able to take adva

frequency. For grouped data, the height of each rectangle is the relative frequency h and is
frequency
given by h = . The width of the bars is determined by the class boundaries.
IClass Interval
Example
Construct a histogram to represent the data shown below
Class 100-104 105-109 110 -114 115-119 120 - 24 125-129 130 -134
Freq 2 8 18 13 7 1 1
Solution
99.5- 104.5- 109.5 - 114.5- 119.5 124.5- 129.5 -
Boundaries 104.5 109.5 114.5 119.5 124.5 129.5 134.5
Heights 2 8 18 13 7 1 1

2.2.5 Frequency polygon

consecutive points. It can also be obtained by joining the mid point of the tops of the bars in a
histogram. The gaps at both ends are filled by extending to the next lower and upper
imaginary classes assuming requency zero.

Example: Consider the following frequency distribution.

Class 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39
freq 5 12 32 40 16 9 6
Draw a histogram to represent this information and fit a frequency polygon on it.
Solution
Boundaries 4.5-9.5 9.5-14.5 14.5-19.5 19.5-24.5 24.5-29.5 29.5-34.5 34.5-39.5
heights 1 2.4 6.4 8 3.2 1.8 1.2
The corresponding histogram is as shownon pag 21 below.

Question Fit a frequency polygon on your histogram in the previous example.

2.2.6 Cumulative frequency curve (ogive)

It is a plot of cumulative frequency against upper boundaries joined with a smooth curve. The
gap on the lower end is filled by extending to the next lower imaginary class assuming
frequency zero. This graph is useful in estimating median and other measures of location.
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Time is precious, but we do not know yet how precious it really is. We will only know when we are no longer able to take adva

9
A HISTOGRAM & A FREQUENCY POLYGON FITTED ON IT
8
7
Relative Frequency 6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Class Boundaries

Example: (ogive)
Construct an ogive to represent the data shown below
Class 100-104 105-109 110 -114 115-119 120 - 24 125-129 130 -134
Freq 2 8 18 13 7 1 1

Solution
Upper Boundaries 99.5 104.5 109.5 114.5 119.5 124.5 129.5 134.5
CF 2 2 10 28 41 48 49 50

Exercise
1) Construct a pie chart and a bar graph showing the blood types of the army inductees
described in the frequency distribution is repeated here.
Blood group A B AB O
Frequency 5 7 4 9
2) The table below shows the average money spent by first-year college students. Draw a pie
chart and a bar graph for the data.
Nature of Expense Electronics Dorm decor Clothing Shoes
Amount(in $) 728 344 141 72

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