UNIT - 2

Hypothesis – Meaning - Significance – Testing –

Types. Sampling Design - Meaning - Steps in
Sampling- Criteria for good sample design-
characteristics of good Sample design - Types of
sample designs: Probability and Non- Probability -
Sample size and Population Size - Meaning
 HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is an assumption / statement to be
proved or disproved

It is a statement that is considered to be true till

it proved to be false.

Researcher hypothesis is a formal question that

he intends to resolve.
 EXAMPLES FOR HYPOTHESIS
Student who receiving counselling will show
greater increase in creativity than students not
receiving counselling.

Workforce diversity has a positive effect on

organizational effectiveness.
 HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is a formal tentative statement of
the expected relationship between two or more
variables under the study.

A hypothesis helps to translate the research

problem and objectives into a prediction of the
expected results or outcomes of the research
study.
 HYPOTHESIS
A clearly stated hypothesis includes the
variables to be manipulated or measured,
identifies the population to be examined and
indicates the proposed outcome for the study.

The formulation of hypothesis plays an

important role in the theory building.
 HYPOTHESIS - DEFINITION
“Hypothesis is a tentative prediction
or explanation of the relationship
between two variables’ It implies that
there is a systematic relationship
between an independent and
dependent variable”
 CHARATERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
(i) It should be clear and precise.
(ii) It should be capable of being tested.
(iii) It should state relationship between variables, if it happens
to be a relational hypothesis.
(iv) It should be limited in scope and must be specific.
(v) It should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms.
(vi) It should be consistent with most known facts
(vii) It should be open to testing within a reasonable time.
(viii) It must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation.
 IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis enables the researcher to objectively
investigate new areas of discovery, thus helps in theory
building.
Hypothesis provides directions to conduct research.
Hypothesis provides clear and specific goals to the
researchers. These goals provide the investigator with a
basis for selecting sample and research procedures to
meet the set goals.
Hypothesis provides a link between theories and actual
practical research.
 IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS
It serves as a bridge between theory and reality.
A hypothesis suggests the methodology to be
chosen to conduct the study.
It is a tentative statement of the anticipated
results, it guides the researcher towards the
direction in which the research should proceed.
It stimulates the thinking process of the
researcher a the researcher forms the hypotheses
by anticipating the outcome.
 IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS
It provides directions about the methodology to
be chosen & techniques of data analysis.
Hypothesis provides an understanding of the
researchers about what to expect from the results
of the study.
It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions
of a research study.
Without a hypothesis a research would be an
aimless wandering.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
1. Simple Hypothesis
2. Complex Hypothesis
3. Null Hypothesis
4. Alternative Hypothesis
5. Statistical Hypothesis
6. Logical Hypothesis
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a hypothesis that reflects a relationship

between two variables independent and dependent variable.

Examples:

 Higher the unemployment, higher would be the rate of crime in

society.
 Smoking leads to cancer
 Lower the use of fertilizers, lower would be agricultural
productivity.
 Higher the poverty in a society, higher would be the rate of crimes
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Complex Hypothesis
A complex hypothesis is a hypothesis that reflects relationship among
more than two variables.
In this type dependent and independent variable are more than 2.
Examples:
 Higher the poverty, higher the illiteracy in a society, higher will be the
rate of crime
(three variables - two independent variables and one dependent variable) .
 Smoking and other drugs leads to cancer, tension, chest infections etc.
 Lower the use of fertilizer, improved seeds and modern equipment's,
lower would be the agricultural productivity
(Four variable - three independent variables and one dependent variable)
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Basis of comparison Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a general

statement that states that there is An alternative hypothesis is a
no relationship between two statement that describes that there
Definition
phenomenons under is a relationship between two
consideration or that there is no selected variables in a study.
association between two groups.

Symbol It is denoted by H0. It is denoted by H1 or Ha.

Mathematical It is followed by not equals to,

It is followed by ‘equals to’ sign.
expression ‘less than’ or ‘greater than’ sign.

The alternative hypothesis

The null hypothesis believes that
believes that the results are
Observation the results are observed as a
observed as a result of some real
result of chance.
causes.
 Basis of comparison Null hypothesis Alternative hypothesis

It is the hypothesis that the It is a hypothesis that the researcher

Nature
researcher tries to disprove. tries to prove.

The result of the null hypothesis The result of an alternative

Result indicates no changes in opinions or hypothesis causes changes in
actions. opinions and actions.

If the null hypothesis is accepted, If an alternative hypothesis is

Significance of data the results of the study become accepted, the results of the study
insignificant. become significant.

If the p-value is greater than the If the p-value is smaller than the
Acceptance level of significance, the null level of significance, an alternative
hypothesis is accepted. hypothesis is accepted.

The null hypothesis allows the Alternative hypothesis are important

acceptance of correct existing as it establishes a relationship
Importance
theories and the consistency of between two variables, resulting in
multiple experiments. new improved theories.
 Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 True Correct Type I error
decision α error

H0 False Type II error Correct

β error decision
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Statistical Hypothesis

A hypothesis, that can be verified statistically, is known

as a statistical hypothesis.

It can be any hypothesis that has the quality of being

verified statistically. It means using quantitative
techniques, to generate statistical data, can easily verify
it. It can also be said that the variables in a statistical
hypothesis can be transformed into quantifiable sub
variable to test it statistically.
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
Logical Hypothesis

A hypothesis, that can be verified logically, is known as a

logical hypothesis.

It is a hypothesis expressing a relationship whose inter-

links can be joined on the basis of logical explanation. It
is can be verified by logical evidence. Being verified
logically does not necessarily mean that it cannot be
verified statistically. It may or may not be verified
statistically but it can be verified logically.
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
1. State null and alternative hypothesis
2. Level of significance
3. Test Statistics
4. Compare test statistics with table value / critical
value
5. Reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis and
make concluding statement
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
A Study on work stress among employees working at private
sector banks in Coimbatore district.

Objective:
1. To study the demographic factors among employees
working at private sector banks in Coimbatore
district.(Percentage analysis)
2. To study the relationship between demographic
variables(age, gender, designation, income level, marital
status) and work stress among employees (Chi square test)
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
State null and alternative hypothesis
For example
H0: There is no significant difference in average
customer rating for male and female employees.
µ1= µ2
H1: There is a significant difference in average
customer rating for male and female employees.
µ1≠ µ2
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Level of significance:
 Level of significance is called α (alpha).
 Level of significance is selected before drawing sample.
 Level of significance α is the probability of rejecting null
hypothesis when actually it is true and has to be accepted.
 In majority of research work 5% or 1% level of significance is
selected.
 If α is at 5% (.05) means there is only 5 out of 100 chance of
rejecting null hypothesis when it is true.
 In other words there is 95% confidence of making right decision
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Test Statistics
Parametric tests are applied provided it holds good the
assumptions of particular test selected. T test, z test, F test
or chi square tests are applied depending upon the
distribution and sample size.
Non parametric statistical tests are applied for distribution
free data. Sign test, Fisher Irwin test, spearman’s rank
correlation, Kendall’s coefficient of concordance, Kruskal-
Wallis test etc are examples for non parametric tests.
 STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Decision regarding accepting or rejecting
null hypothesis depends on the fact whether
computed value falls on critical region.
Once the calculation is done, if the value
falls on critical region then null hypothesis is
rejected and alternative hypothesis is
accepted.
SAMPLING
 SAMPLING
Sampling may be defined as it is the process of obtaining information
about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
Sampling is selecting some of the elements in a population, we may draw
conclusions about the entire population.
 POPULATION & SAMPLE
Population: The population refers to the entire group of people, events,
or things of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.

Sample: A sample is a subset of the population

 POPULATION CLASSIFIED INTO TWO CATEGORIES
Finite population: The population is said to be finite if it consists
of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate in
its totality.
Examples of finite population are the populations of a city, the
number of workers in a factory, etc.

Infinite Population: An infinite population is that population

in which it is theoretically impossible to observe all the
elements. In an infinite population the number of items is
infinite.
Example of infinite population is the number of stars in sky.
 ELEMENT, SUBJECT & SAMPLING UNIT
Sampling: Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient
number of right elements from the population.

Element: An element is a single member of the population

Subject: A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an

element is a single member of the population

Sampling unit: The sampling unit is the element or set of

elements that is available for selection in some stage of the
sampling process. Geographical (state, district)
 PARAMETER & STATISTIC
 Parameter is a characteristic of a population
 A statistic is a characteristic of a sample
 SAMPLING FRAME & SAMPLING DESIGN
Sampling Frame: A list containing all sampling units is
known as sampling frame. Sampling frame consists of a list of
items from which the sample is to be drawn.

Sampling design: A sample design is a definite plan for

obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in
selecting some sampling units from which inferences about the
population is drawn
Sampling size: Number of items selected for the study.
 WHY SAMPLE?
Lower cost

More accuracy of results

High speed of data collection

Availability of Population elements.

Less field time

Impossible to study the whole population

 SAMPLING DESIGN PROCESS

Determine the Determine the Execute the

Define the Determine the
sampling appropriate sampling
population. sample frame.
design. sample size. process
PROBABILITY & NON-PROBABILITY
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 This method is suitable for small homogeneous
 Randomly selecting units from a sampling frame.

Random means mathematically each unit from the sampling frame has an
equal probability of being included in the sample.

In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of

being selected as subject.
The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject
selected independently of the other members of the population.
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
 PROCESS OF RANDOM SAMPLING
Define population
Develop sampling frame

Assign each unit a number

Randomly select the required
amount of random numbers
Systematically select random numbers
until it meets the sample size requirements
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Advantages of simple random sampling

i. Every person has an equal chance of being selected
ii. It follows a systematic procedure for sample selection
iii. It serves as a foundation of all other random sampling techniques
iv. It is suitable when the population is relatively small; sampling
frame is comprehensive and up to date
v. As the sample size increases, it becomes more representative of
universe.
vi. It is economical as well as yield accurate result for the study
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Limitation of simple random sampling

i. Practical difficulties to prepare a comprehensive list of population
ii. Updating population is big task
iii. Large sample size is required to establish the reliability.
iv. As the population widely scattered, it becomes costly as well as time
consuming
v. If there are more heterogeneity among the unit of population, a simple
random sample may not necessarily represent the true characteristics of
population
vi. Unskilled and untrained researcher may cause for making wrong
generalization.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
PROCESS OF SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
Determine the size of the population.

Determine the sample size

Calculate the number of items in the population to be represented by each sample.

No of items in the population to be represented by each sample (n) = Population size / Sample size

Select any item as the first sample and choose next samples which
comes at nth position after the previous one

Collect the samples and draw an appropriate conclusion

 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING

Advantages:
 Easy to select
 Cost effective
 Avoids judgement
 Less time consuming
 Higher degree of control
Disadvantages:
 Size of the population may not be known before the sampling starts
 Assumption that the population is uniform may not always prove to be
true
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according
to some criterion, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or
income, and subsamples are randomly selected from each strata.

Stratified random sampling can be classified into

a. Proportionate stratified sampling It involves drawing a sample from
each stratum in proportion to the letter’s share in total population
b. Disproportionate stratified sampling proportionate representation is
not given to strata it necessary involves giving over representation to
some strata and under representation
STRATIFIED SAMPLING
CBE CITY
 PROCESS OF STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Name the target population.

Name the categories (stratum) in the population.

Figure out what sample size you need.

List all of the cases within each stratum.

Make a decision rule to select cases (for example, you might select the items using the largest set of random numbers).

Assign a random number to each case.

Sort each case by random number.

Follow your decision rule (#5 above) to choose your participants.

 CASE STUDY

You work for a small company of

1,000 people and want to find out
how they are saving for retirement.
Use stratified random sampling to
obtain your sample
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Advantages:
 It increase the precision in estimating the attributes of the
whole population
 It provide more convenience in sampling
 Ensure the accommodation of the whole relevant strata of the
population
 More representative of the population as it includes the each
subgroup of population
 Free from bias to a great extend
 Through proper planning it can be economical as well as
make timely
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Disadvantages:
Improper stratification may cause wrong
results
More strata requires large sample size
Lack of proper planning may lead to too
costly and more time
Trained investigators are required for
stratification
 CLUSTER OR AREA RANDOM SAMPLING
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling‘
 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
 Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.

 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based on

geographical contiguity.
 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
 A sample of such clusters is then selected.
 All units from the selected clusters are studied.
 The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like families. A simple
random sample is taken of the subgroups and then all members of the cluster
selected are surveyed
CLUSTER OR AREA RANDOM SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

The Multistage Sampling is the probability

sampling technique wherein the sampling is carried
out in several stages such that the sample size gets
reduced at each stage.
In Multi-stage sampling large clusters of
population are divided into smaller clusters in
several stages in order to make primary data
collection more manageable
MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
If the government wants to take a sample of 10,000 households
residing in Tamilnadu state.
At the first stage, the state can be divided into the no. of
districts, and then few districts can be selected randomly.
At the second-stage, the chosen districts can be further sub-
divided into the number of villages and then the sample of few
villages can be taken at random basis.
At the third-stage, the desired number of households can be
selected from the villages chosen at the second stage.
Thus, at each stage the size of the sample has become smaller
and the research study has become more precise.
 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

A Study on brand equity of

online companies with
reference to students pursuing
MBA at business schools in
Coimbatore city.
 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
A Study on brand equity of online companies with reference to
students pursuing MBA at business schools in Coimbatore city.

• Size of the Population: 3600

• Area of the study: Business Schools in and around

Coimbatore city which were affiliated to Bharathiar University
(23)

• Source of Data: Students pursuing MBA at Business Schools

• Sample Size: 500

 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

I Stage – Simple random sampling (To select 10

business school)

II Stage – Stratified random sampling

III Stage – Simple random sampling (To select the

sample elements)
 MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

IMPACT OF WORK STRESS AND

JOB SATISFACTION OF
EMPLOYEES WORKING IN
PRIVATE SECTOR BANKS AT
COIMBATORE DISTRICT
S. No of No of
List of Banks in Coimbatore
N Branches Employees
1 Axis bank 32 288
2 Bandhan bank 1 5
3 Catholic Syrian bank Ltd 14 98
4 City Union bank limited 43 301
Development Credit bank (DCB
5 1
bank limited) 5
6 Dhanlaxmi bank 6 42
7 Federal bank 28 224
8 HDFC bank 33 363
S. No of No of
List of Banks in Coimbatore
N Branches Employees
9 ICICI bank 39 429
10 IDFC bank 1 5
11 Indusind bank 1 5
12 Jammu & Kashmir bank Ltd 1 5
13 Karnataka bank Ltd 5 20
14 Karur Vysya bank 49 392
15 Kotak Mahindra bank ltd 9 63
16 Lakshmi Vilas bank 29 232
17 Ratnakar bank (RBL) 1 5
18 South Indian bank 34 306
19 Tamilnad Mercantile bank ltd 29 261
20 YES bank ltd. 4 20
TOTAL 360 3069
CONVENIENCE SAMPLE
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

“SERVICE QUALITY AND ITS IMPACT ON PORT USERS

LEVEL OF SATISFACTION WITH REFERENCE TO MAJOR
PORTS IN ANDRAPRADESH”

A STUDY ON THE INFLUENCE OF CELEBRITY

ENDORSEMENT AT COIMBATORE CITY

A STUDY ON THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY ON

ORGANIZATIONAL ROLE STRESS OF TEACHING FACULTY
WORKING IN COLLEGES UNDER MADRAS UNIVERSITY
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Advantages of Convenience Sampling:
 Simplicity of sampling and the ease of research
 Helpful for pilot studies and for hypothesis generation
 Data collection can be facilitated in short duration of time
 Cheapest to implement that alternative sampling methods
Disadvantages of Convenience Sampling
 Highly vulnerable to selection bias and influences beyond the
control of the researcher
 High level of sampling error
 Studies that use convenience sampling have little credibility
due to reasons above
JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF JUDGEMENT SAMPLING

Advantages of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling)

 Cost-effective and time-effective sampling method
 Only appropriate method available if there are only
limited number of primary data sources

Disadvantages of Purposive Sampling (Judgment Sampling)

 Vulnerability to errors in judgment by researcher
 Low level of reliability and high levels of bias.
 Inability to generalize research findings
QUOTA SAMPLING
 QUOTA SAMPLING

A researcher wants to survey individuals about what smartphone

brand the Coimbatore city people prefer to use. Considers a
sample size of 500 respondents. Here’s how the researcher can
divide the population by quotas:

Gender: 250 males and 250 females

Age: 100 respondents each between the ages of 20-30, 31-40, 41-
50, 51-60, and 61+

Employment status: 350 employed and 150 unemployed people.

 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF QUOTA SAMPLING

Advantages of Quota Sampling

 Saves time
 Research convenience
 Accurate representation of the population of interest
 Saves money

Disadvantages of Quota Sampling

 Quota sampling increases the risk of researcher bias.
 The accuracy of quota sampling largely depends on the
judgment of the study
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING

Advantages of Snowball Sampling

It’s quicker to find samples
Cost effective
Sample hesitant subjects

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

Sampling bias and margin of error.
Lack of cooperation
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
A STUDY ON INCOME,
SAVINGS AND INVESTMENT
PATTERN OF SCHOOL
TEACHERS IN TRICHY
DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU
A STUDY ON THE
EMPOWERMENT AND
QUALITY OF LIFE OF
WOMEN IN SELF HELP
GROUPS IN MADURAI
DISTRICT
IMPACT ON PORT USERS
LEVEL OF SATISFACTION
WITH REFERENCE TO
MAJOR PORTS IN
ANDRAPRADESH
 CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz.,
systematic bias and sampling error. Usually a systematic bias is the result
of one or more of the following factors:

 Inappropriate sampling frame

 Defective measuring device
 Non-respondents
 Natural bias in the reporting of data
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

 Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

 Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the
research study.
 Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled
in a better way.
 Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
 SAMPLE SIZE

The basic factors to be considered are

 the level of precision
 the confidence level
 degree of variability

 The ‘degree of precision’ is the margin of permissible error between

the estimated. The level of precision may be termed as sampling error.
 Confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and
there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. This is also known as
the confidence level.
95% of the area under the
normal curve is specified by
the z-value of 1.96 and z-
value of 2.58 will specify
99% of the cases under the
normal curve. These will
represent confidence levels of
95% and 99% respectively.
 SAMPLE DESIGN

Identify the relevant population for the following research and suggest the
appropriate sampling design to investigate the issues, explaining why they
are appropriate. Wherever necessary, identify the sampling frame as well.

A company wants to investigate the initial

reactions of heavy soft‐drink users to a new
“all natural” soft drink.
 SAMPLE DESIGN

A hospital administrator wants to find out

if the single parents working in the hospital
have a higher rate of absenteeism than
parents who are not single.
 SAMPLE DESIGN

The director of human resources wants to

investigate the relationship between drug abuse
and dysfunctional behaviour of blue‐collar
workers in a particular plant.
 SAMPLE DESIGN

A marketer wants to generate some

ideas on how women differ from men
in acquiring product knowledge about
cars.
 SAMPLE DESIGN QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’?

2. Define sampling, sample, population, element, sampling unit and subject.
3. Explain the steps involved in sampling design.
4. Distinguish between probability and Non-probability sampling.
5. Explain the types of sampling techniques.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of simple random sampling,
systematic, stratified and cluster sampling?
7. Describe and discuss the stratified sampling process and multi-stage sampling
process.
8. What are the criteria of selecting a sampling procedure?
9. What are the characteristics of a good sample design?