FOMIC POLYTECHNIC

POWER ELECTRONICS
Introduction
Power electronics refers to control and conversion of electrical power by power
semiconductor devices whereby these devices operate as switches.
Power electronics run over a broad field of application such as in drives applications,
Switch-mode power supply (SMPS), aviation electronics, high frequency inverters and
power electronics, Electric power transmission, Automotive electronics, Uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS), Alternative power sources controllers etc.

I) POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES (SWITCHING DEVICES)

Power switches operates in two states (modes):
- ON state (Conducting mode): this is when the switch closed.
- OFF state (Blocking state): this is when the switch is opened.

I I=0
VSwitch= 0 VSwitch= Vin
Vin Vin

Figure 1: switching states of a power switch

Note: Power switches don’t operates in linear mode.

I.1. CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SWITCHES

Power switches are classified in three groups. Namely:
- Uncontrolled Switches: Diodes
- Semi-controlled Switches: Thyristor (SCR)
- Fully controlled Switches: Power transistors: e.g. BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, GTO,
IGCT

I.1.1) UNCONTROLLED SWITCH

A) Power Diode
It is a two terminal uncontrolled switch formed from P and N type semiconductor
materials. When a diode is forward biased, it conducts current (ON state) i.e. a small
forward positive voltage (Vf) will turn it ON. The small forward voltage ranges from
0.2-3V depending on the semiconductor material used. When it is reversed biased (a
reverse negative voltage from cathode to anode), the diode is OFF.

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Diode should not be operated at reverse voltage greater than break down voltage (Vbr). If
the reverse voltage is greater than Vbr, then the diode is destroyed.

A (Anode)
+

Id Vd

_
K (Cathode)

Figure 2: Power diode (a) Symbol (b) I-V Characteristics (c) Ideal characteristics

Reverse Recovery of diode

When a diode is switches quickly from forward to reverse bias, it continues to conduct
due to the minority charge carriers which remains in the p-n junction. So the time required
for the minority carriers to recombine with opposite charge and neutralise is called the
reverse recovery time (trr). This effect increases switching losses, increase in voltage
rating, over-voltage (spikes) in inductive loads.

IF
(Reverse recovery time) trr= (t2 - t0 )
(Soft recovery) Sr= (t2 - t1 )/(t1 - t0) = 0.8

t1
t2
t0
VR
IRM
VRM

Types of Power diodes

a) general purpose :
 Large trr about 25us (very slow response)
 Very high current ratings (up to 5kA) and voltage ratings(5kV)
 Used in line-frequency (50/60Hz) applications such as rectifiers
b) Fast recovery
 Very low trr (<1us).
 Power levels at several hundred volts and several hundred amps
 Used in high frequency circuits
c) Schottky

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 Limited blocking voltage (50-100V)

 Used in low voltage, high current application such as switched mode
power supplies (SMPS).

I.1.2) UNCONTROLLED SWITCH

a) Thyristor (SCR)
A Thyristor famously known as Silicon Control Rectifier is a three terminal, four layer
solid state semiconductor device (e.g. P-N-P-N structure) and can handle high currents
and voltages with better switching speed and improved breakdown voltage.
Thyristors acts as bistable switches. It conducts (ON) when triggered by a current pulse
on the gate and OFF only if the current is too low or when triggered OFF.
Conditions in turning ON a Thyristor

1. The thyristor must be forward biased, i.e. the anode should be more positive than
the cathode.
2. The thyristor should be triggered with a positive gate current i.e. A positive gate
current (Ig) should be applied at the gate.
3. The current through the thyristor should be more than the latching current (a
threshold current to turn ON the thyristor).

Once conducting, the anode current is LATCHED (continuously flowing) and so, the gate
signal can be removed without turning it OFF.

In reverse -biased mode, the SCR behaves like a diode. It conducts a small leakage current
which is almost dependent of the voltage, but increases with temperature. When the peak
reverse voltage is exceeded, avalanche breakdown occurs, and the large current will flow.

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Latching Current: This is the minimum current required to turn on the SCR device and
convert it from the Forward Blocking State to the ON State.

Holding Current: This is the minimum forward current flowing through the thyristor in
the absence of the gate triggering pulse.

Forward Breakover Voltage: This is the forward voltage required to be applied across
the thyristor to turn it ON without the gate signal application. If the forward breakover
voltage (Vbo) is exceeded, the SCR “self-triggers” into the conducting state.
Max Reverse Voltage: This is the maximum reverse voltage to be applied across the
thyristor before the reverse avalanche occurs.

Conduction Region: Region where the thyristor is operating in its ON state.

Forward Blocking Region: Region where the thyristor is forward biased but not yet
triggered or the voltage didn’t reach the forward breakover voltage.

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Reverse Region: consists of the reverse blocking region and the reverse avalanche region
similar to the diode characteristic.

Thyristor turn off

The process of turning OFF SCR is defined as "Commutation". Thyristor cannot be turned
off by applying negative gate current. It can only be turned off if the current I through it
goes negative (reverse). In all commutation techniques, a reverse voltage is applied across
the thyristor during the turn OFF process.
Assignment: Types of transistors

I.1.3) CONTROLLED SWITCHES

These are switches that can be turned ON and OFF by relatively very small control
signals. They operate in SATURATION and CUT-OFF modes only. E.g. Bipolar junction
transistors (BJT), Metal oxide silicon field effect transistor (MOSFET), Insulated gate
bipolar transistors (IGBT), Gate turn-off thyristors (GTO). Emerging (new) devices: Gate
controlled thyristors (GCT).
No “linear region” operation is allowed due to excessive power loss. In general, power
transistors do not operate in latched mode.
a) BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

C (collector)
IC
B (base)
+
IB VCE
_
E (emitter)

Figure: BJT (a) Symbol (b) I-V characteristics (c) ideal characteristics

 Ratings: Voltage: VCE<1000, Current: IC<400A. Switching frequency up to 5

kHz. Low on-state voltage: VCE(sat) : 2-3V

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 Low current gain (b<10). Need high base current to obtain reasonable IC .

 Expensive and complex base drive circuit. Hence not popular in new products.

Used commonly in the past. Now used in specific applications Replaced by MOSFETs
and IGBTs

MOSFET

The MOSFET has come to replace the BJT in several applications. It is optimal for low-
voltage operation at high switching frequencies and easy to control by the gate.

D (drain) ID
ID
+
G (gate) + VGS
VDS
+ _
VGS _
S (source) VDS

Figure: N-Chanel MOSFET (a) Symbol (b) I-V characteristics (c) Ideal
characteristics

 Ratings: Voltage VDS<500V, current IDS<300A. Frequency f >100KHz. For

some low power devices (few hundred watts) may go up to MHz range.

 Turning on and off is very simple.

 To turn on: VGS =+15V

 To turn off: VGS =0 V and 0V to turn off.

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 Gate drive circuit is simple

MOSFET Characteristics

 Basically low voltage device. High voltage device are available up to 600V but
with limited current. Can be paralleled quite easily for higher current capability.
 Internal (dynamic) resistance between drain and source during on state, RDS(ON), ,
limits the power handling capability of MOSFET. High losses especially for
high voltage device due to RDS(ON) .
 Dominant in high frequency application (>100kHz). Biggest application is in
switched-mode power supplies.

Gate Turn Off Thyristors (GTO)

GTO are used in very high power switching levels but has slow switching speeds and
requires an elaborate gate control circuitry.

Ia

A (Anode)
Ig>0 Ig=0
Ia + Ih
Ibo
Vak Vr
_ Vbo Vak
Ig
K (Cathode)

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Figure: GTO (a) Symbol (b) I-V characteristics (c) ideal characteristics

 Behave like normal thyristor, but can be turned off using gate signal

 However turning off is difficult. Need very large reverse gate current (normally
1/5 of anode current).

 Gate drive design is very difficult due to very large reverse gate current at turn
off.

 Ratings: Highest power ratings switch: Voltage: Vak<5kV; Current: Ia<5kA.

Frequency<5KHz.

 Very stiff competition:

Low end-from IGBT. High end from IGCT

Insulated Gate Bipolar Junction Transistor (IGBT)

C (collector)
I
G (gate) + VGE
VCE
+
VGE _
_
E (emitter)
VCE VCE
(sat)

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Figure: IGBT (a) Symbol (b) I-V characteristics (c) ideal characteristics

 Combination of BJT and MOSFET characteristics.

 Gate behaviour similar to MOSFET - easy to turn on and off.

 Low losses like BJT due to low on-state Collector-Emitter voltage (2-3V).

 Ratings: Voltage: VCE<3.3kV, Current,: IC<1.2kA currently available. Latest:

HVIGBT 4.5kV/1.2kA.

 Switching frequency up to 100KHz. Typical applications: 20-50KHz.

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MCT (MOSFET Controlled Thyristor)

Figure: (a) Symbol (b) I-V characteristics (c) Ideal Characteristics

Comparison of Controllable Switches

S/n Device Power Capability Switching Speed

1 BJT Medium Medium
2 MOSFET Low Fast
3 GTO High Slow
4 IGBT Medium Medium
5 MCT Medium Medium

TRIAC (Triode on Alternating Current)

The Triac is a member of the thyristor family. But unlike a thyristor which conducts only
in one direction (from anode to cathode) a triac can conduct in both directions. Thus a
triac is similar to two back to back (anti parallel) connected thyristosr but with only three
terminals.

As the Triac can conduct in both the directions the terms ―anode‖ and ―cathode‖ are not
used for Triacs. The three terminals are marked as MT1 (Main Terminal 1), MT2 (Main
Terminal 2) and the gate by G.

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From a functional point of view a triac is similar to two thyristors connected in anti
parallel. Therefore, it is expected that the V-I characteristics of Triac in the 1st and 3rd
quadrant of the V-I plane will be similar to the forward characteristics of a thyristors. As
shown in Fig. 6, with no signal to the gate the triac will block both half cycle of the applied
ac voltage provided its peak value is lower than the break over voltage (VBO) of the
device. However, the turning on of the triac can be controlled by applying the gate trigger
pulse at the desired instance. Mode-1 triggering is used in the first quadrant where as
Mode-3 triggering is used in the third quadrant.

A triac is functionally equivalent to two anti parallel connected thyristors. It can block
voltages in both directions and conduct current in both directions. • A triac has three
terminals like a thyristor. It can be turned on in either half cycle by either a positive on a
negative current pulse at the gate terminal. • Triacs are extensively used at power
frequency ac load (eg heater, light, motors) control applications.

COMPARISM BETWEEN AN IDEAL SWITCH AND A REAL SWITCH

Ion Ion +Von

+Von

Ideal switch Real switch

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IDEAL SWITCH

 Zero voltage drop across it during turn-on (Von).

 Although the forward current ( Ion ) may be large, the losses on the switch
is zero.

 During turn-on and turn off, ideal switch requires zero transition time.
Voltage and current are switched instantaneously.

 Power loss due to switching is zero

REAL SWITCH

 Exhibits forward conduction voltage (on state) (between 1-3V, depending

on type of switch) during turn on.

 Losses is measured by product of volt-drop across the device Von with the
current, Ion, averaged over the period.

 During switching transition, the voltage requires time to fall and the
current requires time to rise.

 The switching losses is the product of device voltage and current during
transition.

 Major loss at high frequency operation

 Major loss at low frequency and DC

Blocking state loss

 During turn-off, the switch blocks large voltage.

 Ideally no current should flow through the switch. But for real switch a small
amount of leakage current may flow. This creates turn-off or blocking state losses

 The leakage current during turn-off is normally very small, Hence the turn-off
losses are usually neglected.

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FOMIC POLYTECHNIC

CONVERTERS
Electronic power converter is the term that is used to refer to a power electronic circuit
that converts voltage and current from one form to another.

 Rectifier converting an ac voltage to a dc voltage

 Inverter converting a dc voltage to an ac voltage
 Chopper or a switch-mode power supply that converts a dc voltage to another dc
voltage
 Cycloconverter and cycloinverter converting an ac voltage to another ac voltage.

AC to DC converter (Rectifier)

AC input DC output

DC to DC converter (Chopper)

DC input DC output

DC to AC converter (Inverter)

DC input AC output

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