PRESENTED BY :- VIJAYENDRA NAGDA

PGT HISTORY
KV.NO.1,AFS, JAMNAGAR
This chapter discusses how textual traditions have been
used by historians to understand Bhakti-Sufi traditions.

Perhaps the most striking feature of this phase is the

increasing visibility of a wide range of gods and
goddesses in sculpture as well as in texts.

At one level, this indicates the continued and even

extended worship of the major deities –Vishnu, Shiva and
the goddess –each of whom was visualised in a variety of
forms.
 One of the most striking examples of this process is
evident at Puri, Orissa, where the principal deity was
identified, by the twelfth century, as Jagannatha(literally,
the lord of the world), a form of Vishnu.

Jagannatha(extreme right) with his sister Subhadra

(centre) and his brother Balarama (left)
• Such instances of integration are
evident amongst goddess cults as
well.
• Worship of the goddess, often simply
in the form of a stone smeared with
ochre(pale yellow clay-kavi), was
evidently widespread.
• These local deities were often
incorporated within the Puranic
framework by providing them with an
identity as a wife of the principal male The
deities –sometimes they were equated integration
with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, in
other instances, with Parvati, the wife
of cults
of Shiva.
TANTRIC WORSHIP
• The forms of worship often
associated with goddess were
classified as Tantric.
• Tantric worship was wide
spread in the subcontinent. It
was open to women and men.
• Those who followed Tantric
rejected the caste and class
within the ritual context.
• Many of these ideas
influenced Shaivism and the
Buddhism.
 •There were conflicts
between those who followed
the Vedic tradition and those
who practiced the Tantric
way of worshipping deities.

Conflicts •Those who valued

•On the other that arose Vedic tradition
hand those who during the often condemned
engaged in the practices that
Bhakti
Tantric practices went beyond the
ignored the movement performance of
authority of the sacrifices and
Vedas chanting of
mantras.
 Rituals & customs which came from dominant social
Great categories were classified as Great Traditions.
Traditions For e.g. The Brahmanical texts like Puranas, Epics
were composed, compiled in simple Sanskrit verses
by which the common men & women got an excess
to the Vedic literature.
Similarly, peasants also followed practices that did
not necessarily correspond with great tradition.

The Brahmins also accepted & reworked beliefs &

Little practices of other social categories termed as little
Traditions traditions, for e.g. Lord Jaganath who is one of the
principal deities of odias was earlier worshipped as
Nilamadhav by the sabaras, a tribal group.

Likewise, many of the traditions emerged during that

period were due to the integration of various cultures.
 The •Saguna included
historians of traditions that focused
religion on the worship of
classified specific deities such Anthropo
Bhakti as Shiva, Vishnu and morphic
EARLY traditions his avatars form
TRADITI into two (incarnations) and
ONS OF broad forms of the goddess
categories: or Devi.
BHAKTI
saguna (with
attributes) •Nirguna bhakti
and nirguna on the other hand Abstract
(without was worship of an form
attributes). abstract form of
god.
 The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu
• •During the sixth century, some of the Bhakti
movements were led by the Alvars and the
Nayanars.

• The literal meaning of the

• Later big temples were
Alvars is those who are
built at those places and
immersed in devotion to
developed as pilgrimage
Vishnu.
centres.

• The meaning of the word

• During their travels the
Nayanars is those who were
Alvars and Nayanars
devotees of Shiva.
identified certain shrines as
abodes of their chosen
deities. •They travelled from place to
place singing hymns in Tamil
in praise of their gods.
 • 12 Alvars
•10th Alvar – Kulasekhara Alwar –
Only Keralite.
• Works of 12 Alvars compiled in the
ALVARS 10th C- Nalayira Divya Prabandham
The Nalayira Divyaprabandham was
described as the Tamil Veda and the
text was significant like the Vedas
that were used by the Brahmanas.

• Periyapuranam- Sekkizhar-
ref about 63 Nayanars
NAYANARS
•Compilation of Appar, Sundarar,
Sambandhar- Thevaram
Attitude towards caste
•• According to some historians, the Alvars and the
Nayanars started a movement of protest against the
caste system and the Brahmanas and attempted to
reform the system.
•• The devotees came from the different social
backgrounds such as artisans, cultivators and even
from the caste that were considered “untouchable”
 • •One of the striking features of these
traditions was the presence of women.
• •For example, there was a saint-poet
called Andal, a woman Alvar. •Her
compositions were sung and sung even
Women devotees. today.
• •Another woman, Karaikkal Ammaiyar,
a devotee of Shiva adopted the path of
extreme asceticism to attain her goal.
• •Her compositions were preserved
within the Nayanar tradition.

•These women renounced their social obligations, but did not

become nuns.

•Their presence was a challenge to patriarchal norms.

 Opposition to Buddhism and Jainism

•The saint –poets the Alvars and the Nayanars were opposed to
Buddhism and Jainism.

•This hostility is well marked in their compositions particularly

of the Nayanars.

•Historians say that his conflict was due to competition between

members of different religious traditions for royal patronage.
 •The Chola rulers
supported the bhakti
traditions and built temples
for Shiva and Vishnu.

Patronage
•The Chola rulers
built temples often to of Chola •Some of the
claim divine support rulers magnificent
and proclaim their temples for Shiva
own power and status such as temples in
and adorned those Chidambaram,
temples with stone Thanjavur and
and metal sculpture Gangaikondacholp
to represent the uram were
visions of the popular constructed under
saints. their patronage.
 MEENAKSHI
TEMPLE-MADURAI

BRIHDESHWAR TEMPLE-
THANJAVUR
 The twelfth century witnessed the
emergence of a new movement in
Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named
Basavanna(1106-68) who was initially a
Jaina and a minister in the court of a
Chalukya king.

His followers were

They worship Shiva
known as
in his
Virashaivas (heroes
manifestation as a
of Shiva) or
linga, and men
Lingayats (wearers
usually wear a
small linga in a
The of the linga).
Lingayats continue
silver case on a Virashaiva to be an important
loop strung over tradition community in the
the left shoulder.
in region to date.

Karnataka
The Virashaiva tradition in Karnataka
•Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united
with Shiva and will not return to this world. Therefore they do
not practice funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in
the Dharmashastras.
•Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead. The Lingayats
challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to
certain groups by Brahmanas. They also questioned the
theory of rebirth. •These won them followers amongst those
who were marginalized with in the Brahmanical social order.
•The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved
in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty marriage and
the remarriage of widows.
•Our understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived
from vachanas(literally, sayings) composed in Kannada by
 RELIGIOUS CONDITION of NORTH INDIA

• According to historians, in north India there was

a period when several Rajput states emerged and
in most of these states Brahmanas occupied
important place by performing rituals.
• There was no attempt to question their position
directly. At the same time there were other
religious leaders who were out of the orthodox
Brahmanical systems, and were gaining ground.
• These included the Naths, Jogis and Siddhas.
Many of them came from artisanal groups such
as weavers who were well organized.
 Religious condition of
north India

• These religious leaders questioned the authority of the

Vedas. However, they were unable to win the support of the
ruling elites.
• Turkish conquest culminated in the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate.
• The power of many Rajput rulers was thus undermined and
also of the Brahmanas who were associated with those
kingdoms.
• The coming of the Sufis was a significant part of these
developments.
 • Muhammed bin qasim conquered Sind
in 711 AD. Sind became a part of the

The
caliph’s domain. During the thirteenth
century the Turks and Afghans

coming established the Delhi Sultanate.

• Sultanates were also formed in the
of Turks Deccan and other parts of the
subcontinent. Islam was recognized as
and the the religion of several areas. This
continued with the establishment of
Islamic the Mughal Empire.

tradition
• Muslim rulers were to be guided by
the Ulema, which were expected to
ensure that they ruled according to the
Sahri’a.
The coming of Turks and the Islamic tradition

• The Zimmi means “protected” and is derived from the

Arabic word zimma, protection. It was developed for
peoples who followed revealed scriptures, such as the
Jews and Christians, and lived under muslim rule.
• They paid a tax called jizya and received protection
from muslims. In India this status was extended to
Hindus as well.
• In general, rulers often adopted a flexible policy
towards their subjects.
• For example, several rulers gave land endowments
and granted tax exemptions to Hindu, Jaina,
Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious
institutions.
• They also showed respect and devotion towards non-
Muslim religions.
 All those who adopted
Islam accepted, in
principle, the five “pillars”
The developments
of the faith: that
that followed the
coming of Islam • 1.There is one God,
were not confined to Allah, and Prophet
ruling elites; in fact Muhammad is his
they permeated far messenger (shahada)
and wide, through • 2.Offering prayers five
the subcontinent, times a day
amongst different (namaz/salat)
social strata – • 3.Giving alms (zakat)
peasants, artisans, The • 4.Fasting during the
warriors, merchants,
to name a few.
popular month of Ramzan(sawm)
• 5.Performing the
practice pilgrimage to Mecca
of Islam (hajj)
The popular practice of Islam
• The universal features of Islam declined due
to the sectarian practices (Sunni, Shi’) and
the influence of local customary practices.
• For example, Arab Muslim traders who
settled Malabar Coast adopted Malayalam
language and matriliny system.
• •The best example of the blending of a
universal faith and local traditions is
mosques.
• •The architectural features of mosques are
universal (orientation towards Mecca and the
placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and
the minbar (pulpit).
• •There are variations such as roofs and
building materials.
 The Growth of Sufism
Sufis were a
group of religious By the eleventh century
minded people in Sufism evolved into a well
Islam. They were developed movement
critical of the He established
with a body of literature
dogmatic rules for spiritual
on Quranic studies and
definitions and conduct and
Sufi practices. Sufism was
scholastic interaction
organized in an
methods of between inmates
institution around the
interpreting the as well as
hospice or Kanqah
Quran. They between
controlled by a teaching
emphasized laypersons and
master known as sheikh,
interpretation of the master.
piror murshid. He
Quran on the enrolled disciples and
basis of personal appointed a successor.
experience.
 The growth of Sufism
Silsilas Dargah

Dargah is a Persian term. Its meaning

Silsila literally meaning a
is tomb-shrine. When the sheikh
chain signifies a
died, his tomb shrine became the
continuous link between
centreof devotion for his followers.
master and disciple,
This encouraged the practice of
stretching as an
pilgrimage or ziyaratto his grave,
unbroken spiritual
particularly on his death anniversary.
genealogy to the Prophet
It was believed that, after death the
Muhammed.Sufi silsilas
soul of sheikh get united with the
began to appear in
soul of Allah. People sought their
different parts of the
blessings to attain material and
Islamic world around the
spiritual benefits. Thus evolved the
twelfth century.
cult of the sheikh revered as wali.
 Sufism

• Ba sharia -were those Sufis

who adhere with the Shariat
• Be-sharia Sufis- were those
who ignored shariat.
 • Of the groups of sufis who migrated to India
in the late 12thC, the Chishtis were the most
influential. This was because they adapted
successfully to the local environment and
adopted several features of Indian
The devotional traditions.
Chishtis • Chishti Order-founded in India by Khwaja
in the Muinuddin Chishti-His disciple was the
Subconti famous Bhaktiyar Kaki.
nent • Famous Chishti Leaders-Nizamuddin Ouliya
and Nazir-ud-din-Chirag-I Delhi.
• Suhravadi Order-Famous leaders-Shaik
Shihabiddin Suhravadi and Hamid-Ud-Din-
Nagori.
• The khanqah was the centre of social life.
It comprised several small rooms and a big
hall where inmates and visitors lived and
prayed.
• The Shaikh lived in a small room on the
Life in
roof of the hall where he met visitors in
the morning and evening. There was an the
open kitchen (langar). Chishti
• From morning till evening people from all
khanqah
walks of life, came to seek the blessings
from the Shaikh in various matters. Other
visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan
Sijzi and Amir Khusru and the court
historian Ziyauddin Barani and all of them
wrote about the Shaikh.
 •Offering •Shaving
water to the heads
visitors of initiates

•Bowing
The practices •Yogic
before the
that were exercises
Shaikh adopted by
the Chishtis
in their
kanqah
 CHISHTI DEVOTIONALISM: -ZIYARAT AND QAWWALI

The Sufis
The use of
Pilgrimage remember God
For more than music and
called Ziyarat either by
seven dance
to tombs of reciting the
centuries including
Sufi saints is zikr (the
people from mystical
prevalent all Divine
different walks chants
over the Names)or
of life performed by
Muslim world. evoking His
expressed specially
This practice is presence
their devotion trained
an occasion through sama
at the dargahs musicians or
for seeking the or
of the five qawwalsto
Sufi’s spiritual performance
great Chishti evoke divine
grace of mystical
saints. ecstasy is also
(barakat). music known
part of ziyarat.
as qawwali.
Dargahof Khwaja Muinuddin
•The most popular dargahis that of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known
as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).The dargah became so
popular because of the following reasons.
•The austerity and piety of the Shaikh, greatness of his spiritual
successors and the patronage of royal visitors.
•Location of Ajmer was another factor for its popularity. As it was located
on the trade route connecting Delhi and Gujarat, it attracted number of
travellers.
•Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first Sultan to visit the dargah.
•Akbar, the Mughal emperor visited dargahat Ajmer fourteen times in his
life and these visits were aimed at seeking blessings for new conquests,
fulfilling of his vows and to get sons.
•Many of his wishes were soon fulfilled and thus as an offering:
•He gave generous gifts on each visit
•He offered a huge cauldron to facilitate cooking for pilgrims.
•He even got a mosque constructed within the dargah
 Sufis and the state.

•The chishtisaccepted
•The chishti tradition was
donations in cash and
austere but it did not
kind and used for their
isolate political power.
immediate
The Sufis accepted
requirements such as
unsolicited grants and
food, clothes, living
donations from the
quarters and ritual
political elites. The sultans
necessities such as
set up charitable trusts
sama.The moral high
(auqaf) as endowments for
status of the Sufis
hospices and granted tax-
attracted people from
free land (inam).
all walks of life.
Sufis and the state
• The kings wished to secure their support. Kings simply did not
need to show their association with Sufis and also required
legitimating for them. When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate,
Sufis resisted the insistence of the ulama on imposing shari’a as
state law because they anticipated opposition from their subjects.
• The sultans also came to depend on the sufis to interpret the
Sahri’a. It was believed that Auliya could intercede with god to
improve the material and spiritual conditions of the people. As a
result, kings got the shrines of the Sufis near built near their
tombs.
• There were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis.
To assert their authority both expected certain rituals performed
like kissing of the feet etc.
 LANGUAGES AND COMMUNICATION
• The Chishtis composed their poems in several languages. The
Chishtis used Hindavi or Persian language. Sufis such as Baba
Farid composed poetry in local language. Some Sufis composed
long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love using
human love as an allegory.
• Sufi poetry was composed in the Dakhani language around the
Bijapur and Karnataka region. Women while performing
household chores like grinding grain and spinning sang these
poems.
• Other poems were in the form of lurinama (lullabies) or wedding
songs(shadinama).The Sufis of this region were inspired by the
kannada vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of
the sants of Pandharpur.
 New devotional paths: Dialogue and Dissent in North
India

• During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Kabir was one of the
most outstanding examples of a poet-saint. Verses ascribed to
Kabir have been compiled in three distinct traditions.

SOURCES TO RECONSTRUCT THE LIFE OF KABIR

• The Kabir Bijakas preserved by the Kabirpanth(the path or sect of
Kabir) in Varanasi and in Uttar Pradesh.
• The Kabir Granthavaliis associated with the Dadupanthin Rajasthan
and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib.
• All these compilations were made after the death of Kabir.
• Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects and
sometimes with special language of nirguna poets (the santbhasha)
and others known as ulatbansi(upside-down sayings).
 Teachings of Kabir
• Kabir tried to describe the Ultimate Reality
including Islam.
• According to him the Ultimate Reality was
Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir. He also used
certain Vedic terms such as Brahman and
Atman.
• He also used some yogic traditional terms
such as shabda (sound) or shunya
(emptiness).
• Some poems of Kabir expressed
conflicting and diverse ideas. Some poems
attacked Hindu polytheism and idol
worship and others use sufi concept of
zikr and ishq (love) to express the Hindu
practice of nam-simaran (remembrance of
God’s name).
 Teachings of Kabir
• Historians have tried to analysethe language, style and
content of these poems. Debates about whether Kabir
was a Hindu or a Muslim by birth are well reflected in
hagiographies.
• Hagiographies within the Vaishnava tradition suggest
that he was born a Hindu, Kabirdas but brought up by a
poor Muslim community of weavers. They also suggest
that he was initiated into bhakti by a guru, Ramananda.
• The poems of Kabir used words guru and satguru but
do not mention the name of any specific guru.
Historians pointed out that it is very difficult to establish
that Ramananda and Kabir were contemporaries.
Baba Guru Nanak and the
Sacred Word
•Baba Guru Nanak was born in a
village called Nankana Sahib
near Ravi in Punjab in 1469.He
trained to be an accountant
and studied Persian. He was
married at a young age but he
spent most of his time among
sufis and bhaktas.
•He also travelled widely.
 Teachings of Guru Nanak
• After his death, his followers consolidated their own practices to
form a distinct community.
• The fifth guru, Guru Arjun compiled Guru Nanak”shymns along
with those of his four successors and other religious poets like
Baba Farid, Ravidas and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. These
hymns called “gurbani” are composed in various languages.
• The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions
of the ninth guru; Guru Tegh Bahadur.Thisscripture was called
the Guru Grantha Sahib. Guru Gobind Singh also laid the
foundation of the Khalsa Panth(army of the pure).
• He also defined its five symbols: Uncut hair, a dagger, a pair of
shorts, a comb and a steel bangle.
• It was under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh that the
community became a socio-religious and military force.
 Teachings of Guru Nanak
• His teachings are well reflected in his hymns. These hymns
suggest that he advocated a form of nirguna bhakti. He
rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship and the
scriptures of Hindus and Muslims.
• According to him, the Absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or
form. He proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by
remembering the Divine Name.
• He expressed his ideas through hymns called “shabad” in
Punjabi, the language of the region and sang with different
ragas.
• He organized his followers into a community. He set up rules
for congregational worship (sangat). He appointed one of his
disciples, Angad, to succeed him as the preceptor (guru).Guru
Nanak did not want to establish a new religion.
MIRABAI, THE DEVOTEE PRINCESS
• Mirabai was the best known woman poet
within the bhakti tradition. She was a
Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar.
• She was married to a prince of the
Sisodia clan of Mewar against he wishes.
She defied her husband and not submit
to the traditional role of wife and
mother.
• She recognized Krishna, the avatar of
Vishnu as her lover. Her in-laws tried to
poison her, but she escaped and lived as
wandering singer composing songs with
intense expressions of emotion.
 MIRABAI, THE DEVOTEE PRINCESS
• Her most famous preceptor was Raidas;a
leather worker. It shows her defiance of the
norms of caste society.
• She had donned the white robes of a window
or the saffron robe of the renouncer.
• Although she did not attract a sect or group
of followers, she has been recognized as a
source of inspiration for centuries.
• We get information about her from the
bhajans attributed to her.
 RECONSTRUCTING HISTORIES OF RELIGIOUS
TRADITIONS
• Historians used a variety of sources to reconstruct histories
of religious traditions. These include stupas, monasteries,
and temples.
• Historians also draw on textual sources including devotional
literature and hagiographies. These sources enable historians
to understand certain religious beliefs and practices.
• They range from the simple direct language of the vachanas
of Basavanna to the ornate language of the farman of the
Mughal emperors.
• Understanding each type of text requires different skills.
Historians have to acquire familiarity with several languages
and to be aware of the subtle variations in style that
characterize each type.
PRESENTED BY :- VIJAYENDRA NAGDA
PGT HISTORY
KV.NO.1,AFS, JAMNAGAR